Firstly, dialogue-speech is supported.
Secondly, the dialogue is conducted with direct contact between the speakers. (Talking influence each other with gestures, facial expressions, timbre and intonation of voice, often jointly observing the subject under discussion).
Thirdly, the dialogue discusses the current situation. (The subject being discussed is often given in perception or exists in joint activity).
Topically oriented dialogue is called a conversation.
The purpose of the conversation may be to determine the level of knowledge, to influence listeners: persuasion, inspiring influence.
Monologue speech. Conversation of one person. Its features:
– it is continuous (therefore, active expressive, facial and gestural influence is carried out by the speaker);
– it must be consistent and demonstrative;
– it must use correct grammar.
In dialogic speech, slips of the tongue, unfinished phrases, and inaccurate use of words are not so noticeable. The situation of mutual communication smooths out the listed shortcomings.
Types of monologue:
– oral story (The most ancient, original form of a monologue is an oral story. In a story, the speaker conveys in descriptive form what he has seen, heard or known, which is unknown to the listeners).
– lecture. (it provides not only a description of phenomena, but also provides proof of certain scientific positions).
– report and speech (speech). (A report is a thoughtful oral communication on a specific issue, based on the presentation of factual material and its generalization. For example, a report from a school principal on the results of the school year, a report on the results of a scientific experiment, etc. The task of speech is different - it should awaken a certain, thought and reach the hearts of the listeners. The speech explains, clarifies something about an event, occasion, celebration (this is, for example, a speech by a school director in connection with the beginning of the school year, a speech at the opening of a monument).
The development of such mass media as radio and television has created the most difficult form of monologue speech
– speaking in front of a microphone and television camera.
Monologue speech in all its forms requires preparation.
Written speech. Written speech appeared later than oral speech and was associated with the need to consolidate for a longer period of time and transmit information about certain events to descendants.
Written speech does not have any additional means of influencing the person who perceives it, except for the word itself and the punctuation marks that organize the sentence. Written speech is addressed to the widest range of readers. Written speech allows you to join world culture.
Inner speech. Inner speech is not aimed at communicating with other people. Inner speech is a person’s conversation with himself. In inner speech, thinking occurs, intentions arise, and actions are planned. The main feature of internal speech is its unpronounceability, it is silent. Inner speech is divided into internal speech and internal speech itself. Inner speech differs in structure from external speech in that it is collapsed and most of the minor members of the sentence are omitted.
Internal speech, like external speech, exists as a kinesthetic, auditory or visual image. In contrast to internal speech itself, internal pronunciation coincides in structure with external speech. Inner speech is formed on the basis of external speech.
Functions of speech.
– expression (attitude to what is being said);
– influence (encouraging other people to take a certain action (order, call, persuasion));
– messages (exchange of thoughts and information using words)
– designation (name of an object, action, state) – this function distinguishes human speech from animals;
– generalization (the word denotes not only a given object, but also a group of similar objects and what is common to them). If the function of designation establishes a connection between a word and all images of consciousness, then generalization expresses the close connection of speech with thinking. Speech is the form of the existence of thought that is most adequate for abstract logical thinking.
The result of the speech depends on how it was said. So, in ancient times, one ruler had a dream: one by one his teeth fell out. He called for a dream interpreter. He said, “I have to tell you bad news. You will lose all your loved ones one by one.” The ruler became angry and invited another interpreter. He said, “I have good news for you. You will live long, longer than all the other members of your family. You will outlive them all.” The ruler awarded the interpreter. The point is not only to understand and speak, but also to present the content in a convenient way .
Intelligence
There are a huge number of approaches to defining the concept of “intelligence”.
For most psychologists, this concept is currently associated with the ability to learn from past experience and adapt to life conditions and situations (V. Stern). The same idea is supported by J. Godefroy, A. Bisch, D. Wexler, L. I. Termen, E. L. Thorndike.
For J. Piaget, intelligence is a general regulator of behavior. There are also more specific definitions of intelligence. Thus, M. Schurer believes that intelligence is “a relatively constant structure of an individual’s ontogenetically determined abilities to comprehend and create meaningful or also functional connections”.
For S.L. Rubinstein, intelligence is equivalent to the general talent of an individual and is a set of general mental abilities. This position is shared by Charles Spearman.
An original approach to understanding intelligence was proposed by B. G. Ananyev. He viewed intelligence as a multi-level organization of cognitive forces, covering psychophysiological processes of the state and personality traits. This organization is associated “with neurodynamic, autonomic and metabolic characteristics of a person. They are unique equivalents of intelligence and determine the measure of mental performance and the price of intellectual stress, the degree of their usefulness and harm to human health...".
L.M. Wecker considers intelligence to be a category that embraces a holistically functioning set of cognitive processes.
According to J. Guilford, intelligence– a multidimensional phenomenon, some complex property that can be assessed according to three dimensions: nature, product and content.
Mental operation, inclusion in intellectual action, can be:
¨ by nature: assessment, synthesis, analysis, memorization, cognition;
¨ by product: unit, class, relation, system, transformation, reasoning;
J. Guilford's model of intelligence includes 120 different intellectual processes - private abilities. They are formed as all possible combinations of operations, contents and mental activity.
Intelligence tests are usually used to assess the level of intelligence development. The most common are the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler tests.
The attitude of psychologists towards assessing intelligence using tests has not been fully determined.
What do we imagine when we hear the word “animation”? Perhaps a Disney classic or Japanese animation that has carved out a prominent niche on the cinema shelf? All this is true, but today we will talk about a not very well-known in wide circles, but no less brilliant animation work called “Possibilities of Dialogue.” The film was shot by a representative of one of the most original and unusual animation movements - Jan Švankmajer.
The works of this director are chaotic, to some extent even crazy, but grandiose ideas are embedded in them. The maestro’s hands make everything move: from old dolls and all kinds of rubbish to pieces of real meat and plasticine.
The short film "Possibilities of Dialogue" is undoubtedly one of his best works. In this film, the boundless imagination and skill of Jan Svankmajer is fully revealed. Using seemingly three simple everyday examples, he demonstrates to the viewer three completely different types of dialogue.
First - real. This is an unrestrained dispute, where each of the opponents, surrounded by their own material world, unyieldingly holds on to their own. Discussants often use the dirtiest methods of dialogue to convince others that they are right. The director condenses the essence of such disputes into a few minutes, showing the insignificance of the conversation with the help of surreal and abstract images. Initially, the characters are represented by certain figures consisting of food, metal objects and stationery, but in the process of dialogue they acquire human forms. Devouring one's own kind, the complete destruction of everything that belonged to the opponent, the alteration of meanings - all this is reflected in the first part of the film.
Next dialogue - passionate. For the viewer to perceive it, it is probably the simplest. The plasticine figures of a man and a woman, in a fit of love, turn into one large organism, merge with each other, burn with lust and ultimately receive some kind of “obligation.” Suddenly their passion comes to an end, the flame of hatred flares up in their hearts, and the lovers literally tear themselves apart, leaving only a lifeless mass.
And the final dialogue - exhaustive. Two male heads appear on the screen, in complete harmony. They complement each other and perform the most ordinary actions together. Then, as often happens with people, they decide to change something: they change places, try to take on more than they could, what someone else could do. In the end, they cease to be themselves and are presented to the viewer as completely broken, split, falling apart remnants of everything human that was in them.
It took Svankmajer just twelve minutes to show all the misunderstandings, problems and other twists and turns that arise during the dialogue. Although, probably, the main feature of the picture is that throughout the entire plot the characters did not utter a single word.
You can talk and think about a film endlessly, but wouldn’t it be better to watch it and find something special in the film, something of your own, something that you saw in yourself?
Dialogue is a conversation between two or more persons, a form of speech consisting of an exchange of remarks. In its meaning, the term “dialogue” is close to the term “discus”, but the traditions of using these terms are different. The substantively important differences between them are that dialogue to a greater extent emphasizes the interactive nature of the use of language, while for the use of the term “discus” the idea of the inclusion of communication in the social context is important.
Types and structure of dialogue
There are two levels of communication that apply to speech communication in general: event-based (informational) and business (conventional).
The event level is characteristic of any sphere of communication: everyday, business, professional, etc. Its main principles are as follows: there is always a subject of communication, the implementation of tactics of accepting a partner, the implementation of a partnership situation in communication, self-realization of the individual.
The business level is characterized, first of all, by clear role differentiation. Its main principles are as follows: there is not always a subject of communication, the implementation of the tactics of accepting a partnership, the partnership situation is realized only in accordance with the role, self-presentation of one’s role.
Based on the goals and objectives of the dialogue, the specific communication situation and the roles of the partners, the following main types of dialogic communication can be distinguished:
- - everyday conversation;
- - business conversation;
- - interview;
- - negotiation;
- - interview.
Let's look at some of the types in detail.
Everyday conversation is characterized by the following: unplanned nature, a wide variety of topics discussed and language means used, frequent deviations from the topic, conversational style of speech, self-presentation of the individual, the absence, as a rule, of goals and the need to make any decision.
A business conversation is an act of direct mutual communication in the official business sphere, carried out through words and non-verbal means (facial expressions, gestures, demeanor). Characteristic features of a business conversation: a differential approach to the subject of discussion, taking into account the communicative goal and partners and in the interests of a clear and convincing presentation of opinions, speed of response to the statements of partners, contributing to the achievement of the goal, an analytical approach to taking into account and assessing the subjective and objective factors of the problem in a complex, a sense of self-worth and increased competence of partners as a result of a critical analysis of other points of view on a given issue, a sense of ownership and responsibility in solving the problem raised in the conversation.
Negotiations are a goal-oriented process aimed at achieving certain results. business communication in the form of dialogue. Negotiations are held on a certain occasion, under certain circumstances, for a certain purpose, on certain issues.
Despite the wide variety of negotiation topics, their structure can be reduced to the following general scheme:
- - introduction to the problem;
- - characteristics of the problem and proposals for the progress of negotiations;
- - statement of position;
- - problem solving;
- - completion.
Negotiations can be easy or tense. Partners can agree with each other without difficulty or not agree at all. During the negotiations, various interests are discovered on which agreement must be reached. Various subjective factors should also be taken into account - the partners’ abilities, their skills, and ability to negotiate. Negotiations require careful preparation. The more serious the approach, the greater the chances of success.
The central issue in dialogue analysis is the question of the unit of analysis. The unit of analysis must be a component of the dialogue, and it must express the same relationships as the whole.
The minimum unit of dialogue is an exchange of moves or dialogical unity, i.e. a pair corresponding to the actions of two interlocutors. However, there is another point of view, in accordance with it, the minimum unit is the action of one of the subjects, a replica, while in the replica itself a reactive part can be distinguished, connecting it with the previous statement, its own contribution and a part directed forward. Obviously, two main models are possible: one, factual, two-term, and the other - informative, three-term, containing, in addition to the interlocutors, also the object of their actions - the subject of speech. The components of the model are connected by vectors of elementary speech actions in accordance with the goals of the speaker, for example, to speak about a subject and influence the interlocutor. monologue dialogue speech language
The development of dialogue is based on promoting communication and striving for mutual understanding. If the goal of communication set by the initiator of the dialogue is not feasible within the framework of one act, the dialogue continues as a chain of acts in which the reaction of one act serves as an action for the next one. The external organization of the dialogue is a sequence of replicas. Its internal structure is usually not a sequence, but a cohesion, a complex interweaving of acts of speech interaction. Moreover, the same speech acts can turn out to be actions in one act and reactions in another. The role of a replica in a dialogue may not correspond to its speech-influencing potential; actions and reactions can be regarded as syntactic functions of statements in the text of the dialogue, and the forms of influence themselves (request, order, consent, etc.) receive a morphological status in the grammar of the dialogue. Forms and impacts can be described according to their nature and strength of impact.
Question 11. The concept of dialogue. Dialogue structure. Features of dialogue. Basic rules of dialogue. The concept of attentive silence. Laws of rhetoric of dialogue.
Dialogue - this is a process of mutual communication, during which a remark is replaced by a response phrase and there is a constant change of roles “listener - speaker”. The peculiarity of dialogue in communicative terms is dialogic unity, the expression of thoughts and their perception, reaction to them, which is reflected in the structure of the dialogue. It consists of interconnected remarks from interlocutors.
The process of two-way communication occurs in a specific situation in which each of the participants alternates in the role of speaker and listener, i.e. During the dialogue, information is exchanged.
Dialogue lines– these are speech acts, i.e. actions determined by the speaker's goal, aimed at the result.
Intentionality, purposefulness, adherence to the rules of conversation - main features of dialogue.
The purposefulness of a speech act in a dialogue is the explicit or hidden goals of the addressee or sender, for example, message, question, order, advice, apology, command.
To achieve their goals, each of the interlocutors realizes one or another intention, prompting the interlocutor to certain speech actions. Inviting information can be expressed directly (the form of the verb in the imperative mood) and indirectly (question: could you? Isn't it difficult for you? etc.).
In dialogue, the following should be observed: rules of conversation:
1. The message is presented in parts: the listener is prepared to perceive his request or other information, then there is a justification (for example, why such an assessment of events was given) and only then direct information is given (for example, a statement of a request, advice). In this case, the appropriate rules of etiquette must be observed;
2. The message must be relevant to the topic of the conversation;
3. Interlocutors must make speech clear, unambiguous and consistent.
If the rules of conversation are not followed, mutual understanding is disrupted, for example, if the speech of one of the interlocutors is incomprehensible to the other (abundance of terminology in an unprepared audience, unclear articulation, etc.).
A typical set of semantic parts of a conversation:
Establishing contact with the interlocutor (visual and verbal).
Common phrases: “Hello”, “Long time no see”, “Sorry”, “Who am I seeing”, etc.
1.Start a conversation
greetings
a question about whether a conversation is possible: “I’m not interrupting you?”, “Can you talk now?”, “Excuse me, can I ask you?”, “Are you busy right now?”
questions about life, affairs, health (usually in an informal friendly conversation)
message about the purpose of the conversation
2. Development of the topic.
Information from the speaker + the interlocutor’s reaction, his responses. At this point, the initiative in the conversation may pass to the interlocutor.
3.End of conversation.
Concluding phrases accompanying the end of the conversation (are of a generalizing nature).
Etiquette phrases that accompany the end of any conversation.
Parting.
Each topic (ideally) is developed before the interlocutors move on to a new topic. If one of the interlocutors does not support the topic, this may indicate that:
the interlocutor does not want to talk about this topic;
the interlocutor is inclined to impose his topic;
perhaps the interlocutor did not hear your words and needs to be repeated;
the interlocutor does not want to talk with you.
The speech behavior of the interlocutor requires understanding, penetration into his mood, thoughts, motives, motives, otherwise successful communication is impossible. In this regard, empathy is very important (the ability to take the place of another person, promoting mutual understanding and harmonization of relationships).
Improving communication techniques and dialogue techniques requires studying models of dialogue, mastering variability of means of expressing thoughts and feelings, mastery of tactical techniques of verbal communication.
It is known that the same thought can be expressed by different lexical and grammatical means.
General rules for conducting dialogue according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky:
The question requires an answer;
A command requires a response in action or word;
Narration requires a response (response or response narration or attentive silence).
Attentive silence - absence of speech, in which the listener notifies the speaker by facial expression, gestures, interjections, and repetition of words that his speech is accepted and understood.
Forms of dialogue should be planned both at the everyday, official and state levels.
When planning dialogues, you need to consider laws of dialogue rhetoric.
1. The law of resistance to everything new. Every new project encounters resistance from people. Any new statement or action is met with resistance despite the fact that this statement or action does not threaten the well-being of individuals, organizations and the state of society as a whole.
To implement a new project, promote a new idea it is necessary to create favorable soil. The conditions for the implementation of the project are public relations (through dialogue).
The public relations plan is developed so that:
1) put those into effect types of literature that can be used with the greatest effect to promote this project.
2) a system of arguments in favor of the project must be developed (the system of arguments is different among the authorities, the public, firms, public organizations, etc.; the system of arguments must meet the interests of one or another category of citizens).
3) it is necessary to ensure a dialogue mode of verbal actions (i.e. present your arguments taking into account alternatives and develop alternative views in as much detail as possible, refuting the alternatives each time).
The dialogue mode also refers to real dialogue in written and oral forms with categories of stakeholders and persons affected by public relations. Next you need correct conclusions.
2. Law of Invention Boundary Conditions : the invention of the content of speech is impossible without taking into account the cultural conditions of rhetorical invention (the totality of data about the personal culture of the interlocutor or audience: spiritual, moral, moral, ethical and aesthetic levels, as well as the level of education) This is the law of the cultural conditions of rhetorical invention.
The effectiveness of dialogue often depends on what types of literature are used in the dialogue: only the necessary types of literature should be used (avoid verbosity and idle talk, talk about the same thing in different words). The time for decision needs to be reduced and we move on to action.
To successfully conduct a dialogue, it is necessary to know the rules of dialogue and understand the correctness of its flow. For example, one should not confuse speech in court and speech in an assembly, although both are in the nature of dialogue-theater, otherwise damage can be caused to both the cause and the individual.
3. The law of dialogical socialization.
The basic rules of dialogue involve the socialization of a person through speech:
1. If you are addressed with a speech, you should stop any activities and listen to the speech;
2. If you are addressed with a speech at the moment when you are making a speech, you should shut up and listen to the speech;
3. If there is no thought that is born in the soul through dialogue, then the matter cannot take place.
4. Law of Elimination of Harm from Speech : Dialogue involves protecting the listener from the speaker; the listener must determine whether the speaker will cause him hidden or obvious harm.
The rules for the listener include the assessment of the speaker’s speech, since the burning one is dangerous for the listener in that it can lure him into difficult situation or lead to incorrect understanding and action.
Rules for the listener according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky:
1. It is necessary to look for differences in speeches received from different persons.
2. It is necessary to divide the received statements into true and false, suitable and unsuitable.:
3. It is necessary to separate the interests of the speaker from the content of his statement.
4. It is necessary to recognize and separate the intentions and interests of the speaker from the nature of the situation and the content of the speech.
5. It is necessary to determine the sincerity of the speaker: is there anything behind his words that could cause damage.
6. It is necessary to keep your deeds and thoughts, which cannot be known to others, secret.
7. It is necessary to evaluate errors in the content of speech outside of relation to the speaker: illogicality, fiction, uncertainty of judgment.
8. It is necessary to clarify errors in the content of speech in connection with its modality, that is, to evaluate the speaker’s attitude towards his speech (Self-justification, Bragging, Incompetent criticism, Misunderstanding of the essence of the matter, Distortion of the truth in anger)
Speaker Rules– typical rules of rhetoric:
1. Caution (you need to watch your tongue).
2. It is necessary to respect the intent of the speech.
3.The meaning of a word depends on how it is said.
Top– the basic unit of an invention (invention) – a common place, a semantic model.
The use of one or another top depends on the functional-semantic type of speech (description, narration, reasoning).
Types of tops:
1) genus and species;
2) whole and part;
3) definition;
4) properties (description of characteristics);
5) circumstances (time and places in the description, causes and consequences in reasoning);
6) comparison and contrast;
7) name (the name of someone’s name is played on);
8) example (illustration);
4. Typical speaker mistakes:
1) contradiction of the content of speech to the situation (inappropriateness);
2) the triviality of the content of speech for the listener (lack of novelty);
3) verbosity (redundancy).
The productivity of verbal means used in speech (logos) depends on the art of debating, but the art of debating itself is based on the objective laws of dialogue. Dialogues, in accordance with the laws of formation of common places (topics), are divided into dialogues in one type of literature and dialogues in different types literature.
Dialogues in one type of literature are subject to the following laws:
1. Law of time.
The endless continuation of dialogue in one type of literature destroys the informational value of speech (and vice versa).
2. Audience Law .
The endless expansion of the audience in one type of literature destroys the informational value of speech (and vice versa).
This means that if you want to “bury a case,” involve as many people as possible in it 3. Law of Audience Competence .
Poverty of knowledge on the subject of speech in the audience destroys the information value of speech (and vice versa).
4. Law of Relevance .
Organizing a dialogue by place, time and participants, which does not take into account the participants’ interest in the subject of the dialogue, destroys the information value of the dialogue.
Many substantively important dialogues do not produce results because they do not affect the real interests of the participants. This law is also called law of interest in the content of the case: not a single speech in one type of literature can attract participants to the dialogue if they do not have direct interest.
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