Each of us knows a lot about politics. We know everything about the policy of the state, our company and even pursue our political line in family relationships. What is politics? Let's try to understand this issue.
What does "politics" mean?
The word politics came to us from the ancient Greek language. It comes from the word politike, which translates as public or state affairs. Many famous philosophers have given their definition of politics. For example, Plato believed that politics is the art of managing all other arts (judicial, oratory, military, etc.) in order to improve the lives of citizens. Machiavelli believed that politics can be called knowledge about the correct and wise government of the state.
What is politics: modern definition
Policy is the general guidance for making decisions and actions that facilitate the achievement of a given goal. Policy develops the directions that must be followed in order to achieve the goal. In addition, she explains why it is necessary to adhere to these directions. Although policy directs actions to accomplish a given task or achieve a certain goal, however, it leaves freedom of action.
What is the essence of politics
The concept of “politics” has long been part of our speech and everyday life. But did this make it any clearer? Let's try to explain what the essence of the policy is:
- Policy is created government agencies and social movements, so it is inextricably linked with them.
- Politics is the struggle for power, its use and retention.
- Politics can be seen as a decision-making procedure in a society in which there is no complete unity. These decisions can satisfy the interests of a large group of people or, conversely, a very narrow circle of people.
- Politics can be compared to a form of art. After all, a skillful politician always achieves his goal with minimal losses, is able to try on the warring parties, take into account both long-term and short-term interests of his party, people and state. And all this is not possible if the politician does not have deep knowledge, talent, and intuition.
What does politics do?
Politics plays a significant role in the development of any society. Let's take a closer look at what politics does in society:
- Ensures stability and integrity of society.
- Ensures the effectiveness and mobilization of all types of public activities.
- Regulates and manages public interests.
- Provides socialist socialization by drawing individuals and entire population groups into social life.
- Creates individual rights and freedoms, and is also a guarantor of their observance.
What is involved in politics
Politics can include everything that is in any way connected with social movements, political parties and government structures. This can be explained by the fact that it is all of the above that creates politics, and, therefore, is inextricably linked with it. Any problem, if it comes to the attention of the state, social movement or party, immediately becomes a political problem.
What is included in the policy
Politics is a rich and varied world that includes:
- Various sciences, tk. politics is inextricably linked with them.
- Goals, interests and attitudes of various political institutions and social groups.
- Mechanisms for coordinating and regulating interests that prevent a split in society.
- Direct interaction between objects and subjects of policy.
Elements of politics also include political relations, political power, political organization and culture, political consciousness, as well as political subjects.
What is accounting policy
Accounting policy is the documentation regulating the conduct of tax and accounting at an enterprise or organization, as well as a whole set of rules for recording expenses and income in the organization’s accounts, putting property on the balance sheet and drawing up reporting documentation.
In other words, accounting policies can be considered as a whole set of documents that facilitate accounting and reduce taxation.
Well designed accounting policy allows you to reduce in a legal way taxation of an enterprise or organization.
The accounting policy is developed by the chief accountant and approved by the head of the organization, who issues an order for its implementation.
POLITICAL SCIENCE
Man is a political being. This truth was formulated by the great ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Politics affects the interests of all people.
Political science- one of the youngest humanities disciplines. It took shape in the late 40s. 20th century. It originated within the framework of philosophy. Scientists note the formation of specific political issues only in the 16th century. This is connected with the works of the Italian thinker N. Machiavelli. Political science was influenced by public law (constitutional and administrative). At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the systematic study of politics. Political science- from ancient Greek politics and doctrine. The science of politics. Object political science - the political sphere of public life. This is the sphere of state-organized connections, interactions and relationships.
Politics – from the ancient Greek polis - city-state. Aristotle's treatise “Politics” is what relates to the state, state affairs, the art of government.
Policy definitions.
- Policy- these are relations between states, classes, social groups, nations that arise regarding the seizure, exercise and retention of political power in society, as well as relations between states in the international arena.
- Policy- This is the activity of government bodies, political parties, public associations in the sphere of relations between social groups (classes, nations, states), aimed at integrating their efforts with the aim of strengthening political power or conquering it.
- Policy- the sphere of activity of groups, parties, individuals, the state, associated with the implementation of generally significant interests with the help of political power.
- Policy- participation in state affairs
- Policy- the art of government
- Politics – science of public administration.
Political science
Political relations of social subjects regarding state power
Attitudes, interests, goals of social groups and political institutions
Department for the implementation of models of the future society
Influence on the state power of the country's political forces (parties, citizens)
D-st on management of spheres of life of the company.
Types of policies:
By sphere of society - economic, social, national, scientific, environmental, cultural, military;
By scale - internal and external;
In terms of priorities - neutral, open doors, compromises, national reconciliation;
By subject - state, world community, party, bank, company.
Political science- is the science of state-organized society as a functioning and developing political system based on the interaction of its constituent elements: political subjects, political institutions and political consciousness.
Other sciences are closely related to political science: political philosophy, political history, political sociology, political psychology, political anthropology, political geography, jurisprudence.
A prominent place in the history of political thought of antiquity is occupied by the views Plato(5-4th century BC), set out in the works “State”, “Laws”. He considered the following to be vicious forms of government:
- timocracy - the power of the ambitious;
- oligarchy- domination of the rich few;
- democracy– power of the majority;
- tyranny - the power of a tyrant.
The ideal state according to Plato is the fair rule of the wise. Justice. Hierarchy: rulers - philosophers, warriors - guards, artisans and peasants - physical labor.
Aristotle All forms of government are divided into correct and incorrect. Correct - goal states in the common good (monarchy, aristocracy, republic). Wrong - the benefit of the ruler, not the people (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy).
In ancient Rome he contributed to the development of political thought Cicero(1st century BC) in the works “On the State”, “Laws”. Legal equality. Justice. Three forms of government: royal power, the power of optimists (aristocracy), people's power (democracy). The best form is mixed - the strength of the state and the legal equality of its citizens.
Medieval philosophers - power is God's providence. Augustine Aurelius (4th-5th century). Thomas Aquinas(13th century). - supporter of the monarchy. Two types of monarchy: absolute and political. Political is preferable.
During the Renaissance Italian Niccolo Machiavelli(15-16th century). The works “The Prince” and “Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livy.” He believed that political behavior was based on profit and power. In politics the end justifies the means.Two way
actions to achieve the goal: the path of law and the path of violence. The sovereign must be able to use both methods. Machiavellianism- politics based on the cult of brute force, disregard for moral standards.
In modern times, philosophers Hobbes, Locke, Spinoza, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Hobbes are the founders of the theory of social contract . Hobbes- in the work “Leviathan or matter, form and power of the state.” There can be three forms of state: monarchy, democracy and aristocracy. Hobbes is a defender of monarchical power.
Locke in Two Treatises on Government. The idea of a right-wing state is subordinate to society.
Montesquieu in the work “On the Spirit of Laws.” Freedom and equality. “Everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted.” The theory of separation of powers.(The idea of mixed government was developed by Aristotle and Cicero). For the first time this idea found its embodiment in England during the reign of Cromwell, albeit spontaneously.
Jean Jacques Rousseau and the work “On the Social Contract or Principles of Political Law” introduces the concept of social equality. The principle of popular sovereignty. The principle of republicanism.
The ideas of the French enlighteners were embodied in the Great French Revolution 18th century.
German classical philosophy.
Kant(German Phil. 18th century). Works “Towards Eternal Peace”, “Metaphysical Principles of the Doctrine of Law”. Personal autonomy. Man is an end, not a means. Law and order. Politics is the harmony of ends and means.
Hegel(German Phil. 19th century). The work “Philosophy of Law” is an idealistic theory of state and law. The doctrine of free will. The doctrine of civil society and the rule of law. The ideal is a constitutional monarchy.
Thus, the main doctrines of political thought of the Renaissance and the period of bourgeois revolutions:
- theory of popular sovereignty-(17-19 centuries) based on the theory of social contract. According to this theory, the people are the source of power and its bearer.
- rule of law theory
- theory of separation of powers.
Representatives of utopian socialism of the 16th-19th centuries.
Ancestor- Thomas More(15-16) in the book “Utopia” (a place that does not exist). Social ownership of the means of production. Collectivism, planned economic management. Labor is the first need, labor education. From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs. Social equality, equality of women. Withering away of the state.
Stages of utopian socialism:
- early (16-18) emergence of capitalism and bourgeois revolutions. Representatives: More (England), Campanella (Italy), Winstanley, Mably, Meslier, Babeuf (France).
The second stage is the 18th century, the Age of Enlightenment. Representatives: Saint-Simon, Fourier (France), Owen (England).
Third stage 2nd half of the 19th century. Russian revolutionary democrats: Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Belinsky, Herzen and others. For the revolution, a democratic republic, democracy, the peasant community.
Marxist concept of politics. Marx and Engels German Phil. 19th century.
Power struggle;
The basis is primary, and the superstructure is secondary;
The state is a product of class contradictions and serves the interests of the economically dominant class. State violence.
Ideologically dominant class
Social existence determines consciousness
Politics is subordinate to economics, but also influences it.
Political thought of Russia in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Decembrists. Equality. Civil society. Right of the person. Republic.
Chaadaev."Philosophical Letters". Reasons for Russia's backwardness from European countries.
Westerners and Slavophiles. 30-40s of the 19th century.
Slavophiles. Kireevsky, Khomyakov, Aksakov, Samarin. Identity of Russia. Preservation of autocracy.
Westerners. Belinsky, Granovsky, Herzen, Ogarev, Botkin. Russia is following the Western path.
Herzen.50-60. The idea of "Russian socialism". Through the rural community.
Chernyshevsky. People's Peasant Revolution.. Populism.
Anarchist-rebellious direction. Bakunin. Denial of any state.
Neo-Slavophilism. Religious philosophy. Soloviev. Berdyaev. Milyukov.
Modern political doctrines West.
Gumplowicz. 19th century“Sociology and Politics”, “Fundamentals of Sociology”, “Struggle of Races”. Representative of social Darwinism. The theory of conquest.
Spencer. 19th century. positivist direction. "Foundations of Sociology". Society is evolving. Social conditioning of power.
Pareto and Mosca 19th-20th century. Italian scientists. Elite theory. Mosca in his work “Elements of Political Science” - power should always be in the hands of the minority, the elite. Pareto "Treatise on General Sociology". The elite and the counter-elite are fighting among themselves.
Ostrogorsky and Michels to the 19th-20th centuries. The theory of oligarchization (bureaucratization) of political parties.
Weber.19-20 century, German sociologist. Theory of democracy. Bureaucracy.
American scientists of the 20th century. Lasswell, Dahl, Toffler, Italian Bobbio, fr. Crozier. Issues of power in the conditions of transition to a post-industrial society.
The entire history of mankind can be divided into pre-political and political periods. For several tens of thousands of years, society managed without politics in its organization. K. Marx associated the pre-political organization of society with the absence of classes. In pre-class society there was no private property, people lived in small ethnic groups connected by consanguinity - family, clan, tribe. In the twentieth century, the research of such scientists as C. Lévi-Strauss and L. Lévi-Bruhl expanded the understanding of the pre-political period of history. In this society, people lived according to rigid traditions that formed the basis of organization. Their organization was based on cultural technologies in which they received implementation life situations. Since these situations were related to nature and small communities, they were quite simple. In this society there were no people in our usual sense yet. People were bearers of functions and had names that were given to them upon “coming of age”—inclusion in the community of “adults” as a result of an initiation rite. These people did not think independently, they did not have individual will and the right to choose. They were literally “cogs” of the social machine - an organization that programmed them with social rituals, taboos, supplied them with mythological dogmas, formed a pre-scientific, pre-logical consciousness, in which everything was explained and everything was dictated for each person - the performer social role. Such a social organization was characterized by indivisibility and unity (syncretism) of social institutions. They were not yet needed in society and were kept in embryo. The transition to political organization represents a significant leap in the change of social form. The emergence of politics contributed to the development of human culture. An appropriate structure is created in society, which makes a person freer, more aware of himself and his existence, and also more organized. So, politics is an activity in the sphere of relations between large social groups (classes, nations, states) regarding the establishment and functioning of political power in the interests of realizing their socially significant requests and needs. The understanding of politics as a sphere of interaction between various social groups and communities of people is called communication. Aristotle stood at its origins. According to his definition, politics is a civilized form of community that served to achieve the “common good” and “happy life.” At that time, politics was understood as the whole of public life. Various scientific definitions of policy can be systematized and divided into several groups, each of which is internally differentiated.
Sociological. Characterizes politics through other social phenomena: economics, law, morality, culture, religion.
- -- economic. Politics is a superstructure over the economic base, a concentrated expression of economics.
- -- ethical. Politics is a superstructure over the economic base, a concentrated expression of economics.
- -- stratification. Politics is the rivalry of certain social groups: classes or nations (Marxism) or interested groups (A. Bentley, D. Truman), ensuring balance and equilibrium of public interests in a modern democratic state.
- - legal. Politics is a specialized activity to protect the fundamental rights inherent in every person from birth: life, freedom, security, property (the theories of the “Social Contract” of Spinoza, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Kant).
Substantial. Reveals the fundamental principle, the “fabric” that makes up politics.
- - domineering. Politics are actions aimed at power, its acquisition, distribution, retention and use (M. Weber).
- -- institutional. Politics is the activity of the state, as well as parties and other associations and unions.
- -- anthropological. Politics is a form of communication between people, a way of collective human existence (Aristotle).
- -- conflict-consensus. Politics is the activity of peaceful and violent resolution of conflicts (M. Duverger, S.F. Huntington).
- - “friends-enemies” relationship. Politics is any social activity in which people interact as friends and enemies.
Processual - reveals the dynamic, procedural nature of politics.
- - active. Politics is the process of preparation, adoption and practical implementation of decisions binding on the entire society.
- -- teleological. Politics is the activity of effectively achieving collective goals.
- -- systemic. Politics - relative independent system, complex social organism, integrity, delimited from environment(other areas of society) and is in continuous interaction with it.
Naturalistic interprets politics as a set of natural factors.
- -- geographical. Treats politics as a combination of natural factors.
- -- biological. Politics is a tool for controlling human animal instincts.
- -- psychological. Politics is the activity of people, determined by their desire for power and wealth.
Theological - politics as a manifestation of the divine will.
The interpretations of politics discussed above do not exhaust the diversity of its definitions, although they reflect the most important of them. The abundance of scientific characteristics is explained, first of all, by the complexity of politics, the richness of its content, the variety of properties and social functions.
Summarizing various definitions, we can define politics as the activity of social groups and individuals in articulating (awareness and representation) of their conflicting collective interests, developing decisions binding on the entire society, carried out with the help of state power.
The management system, or management system, serves as an instrument for implementing state policy. This is understandable if we consider that the concepts of “politics” and “political” are characterized by ambiguity. But to the question: “What is politics?” - People tend to answer differently. They talk, for example, about the monetary policy of banks, the policy of trade unions during a strike, the school policy of city authorities, the policy of the management of an enterprise or school, even the policy of a smart wife who seeks to control her husband.
What exactly is politics?
What content is included in the concept of “politics”?
Politics in the proper sense of the word is, on the one hand, a sphere of human activity where interaction takes place between various, often opposing or conflicting, socio-political forces regarding power and power relations between these forces. In this regard, politics is closely connected with the political world. Moreover, these concepts are often used as synonyms.
On the other hand, politics refers to the form of activity of the state and its institutions, society, political parties, organizations, movements and even an individual in managing various areas of public life: the economy, social sphere, culture, education, science, healthcare, etc. .
Politics in one form or another affects all citizens of the state. Huge masses of people take part in it, pursuing their social, economic, cultural and other interests. The degree of complexity and versatility of politics depends on the scale of economic, social, ethno-national, religious and other forms of pluralism in society.
Policy is designed to solve everyday and strategic problems vital for society, to develop and implement programs to ensure the viability, effective functioning and further development of both society as a whole and its individual subsystems. In this regard, they talk about economic, industrial, agricultural, social, military policies, policies in the field of education, health care, etc.
In other words, with the help of targeted policies, social processes are managed. It is no coincidence that politics is sometimes called the art of governing. In this sense, politics includes both conflicts, struggle and competition for power and influence, and joint actions of people in search of optimal ways for the functioning and development of society and the state. That is why they talk about political conflicts, political struggle, political course, political programs, etc.
From this point of view, the resource of power is of particular importance. Without power there can be no normal, effective politics. Those researchers are right who believe that any social problem acquires a political character if its solution is in one way or another connected with the authorities.
Politics is closely connected with decision-making. It embodies the interrelation and interdependence, the dialectic of internal and external conditions and factors of development of society and the state. Therefore, it is natural that politics is divided into internal and external.
Domestic policy
Domestic policy is a set of activities of the state in economic, social, scientific, educational, demographic, law enforcement, military and other important spheres of public life. To achieve goals domestic policy the state uses a wide range of means, such as state budget, taxes, social security system, financing of science, education, healthcare, judicial and law enforcement agencies.
State policy in various spheres of public life is by no means limited to the national level of the central authorities. As mentioned above, government in the state is carried out at three levels: national, regional and local. Accordingly, policy is also implemented at all these three levels.
Various directions of the state's internal policy are highlighted. They talk about economic, industrial, agricultural, social, military, employment, labor relations, education, health, law enforcement, etc. policies.
For example, it is the state that owns main role in creating and maintaining in proper order infrastructure in key areas of public life: economics, transport, energy, social sphere, science, education, etc. It serves as a guarantor of freedom of entrepreneurial activity, protection of owner rights and consumer rights, etc.
The role of the state is especially indispensable as a guarantor of maintaining a competitive environment, where antimonopoly or antitrust legislation is of decisive importance. The state plays an indispensable role in the monetary and financial sphere, ensuring reliability national currency and stability of the monetary system. A key place in state policy is occupied by the preparation, adoption and distribution of the state budget.
One of the most important areas of state activity is social policy, which is a set of measures taken and implemented by the state to ensure the well-being of the general population, prevent disproportions in the income of various groups of the population, reduce and mitigate the consequences of social inequality, create decent living conditions for the poor and low-income, old people and disabled people, etc.
In this direction, state policy in the field of science, education, and health care is of particular importance. In general, social policy serves as a stabilizer of society, preventing and overcoming social and political instability, which is crucial for the viability and effective functioning of society and the state. It is obvious that social policy covers a very wide range of issues relating to almost all spheres of public life and the vast majority of citizens of a given state.
In this area, the effectiveness of policies cannot and cannot be assessed by indicators of profitability and competitiveness.
In this regard, of no small importance is the existence of such spheres and institutions, the results of which cannot be measured in terms of material payback or non-payback, profitability and competitiveness of products, as is customary in the economic sphere. Here the criteria for ensuring social justice and spiritual health of society are of fundamental importance.
These are, in particular, the education and health systems, social assistance disabled population, fundamental science, maintaining the country's defense capability, maintaining law and order, etc. Particularly important is the management of various kinds of conflicts that arise in society. Here the main goal is to prevent, neutralize, resolve, and resolve conflicts.
Interethnic relations are an independent object of state policy. They are especially important in multinational states. As is known, in modern world most countries are multinational. In conditions when the ethno-national factor has come to the fore and become a catalyst for many contradictions and even armed conflicts, this problem is becoming increasingly important.
State policy in this direction is designed to ensure legal, social, cultural, and political regulation of interethnic relations. It is important to take into account that the state bears a special responsibility for protecting and ensuring the interests of the rights and freedoms not only of an individual person or citizen, but also of ethno-national, religious, cultural and other minorities, regardless of their social status, race, nationality, religion.
An important part of domestic policy is policy aimed at protecting and improving the environment, or environmental policy. It aims at the rational use and renewal of natural resources, the preservation and development of the bio- and sociosphere, ensuring normal human life and environmental safety.
Military policy is a part of the general policy of the state, serving to ensure the national security of the country from external and internal threats, the protection and implementation of national interests, territorial integrity and sovereignty, etc. Here, the main goal of state policy is the development and implementation of measures to strengthen the country's defense capability, primarily by maintaining at the proper level and, if necessary, building up the armed forces.
The rights and freedoms of man and citizen are the highest value, which is entrusted to the state, and the state, through its functions, is obliged to ensure the protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens and the safe existence of society. The importance of this function of the state is evidenced by the fact that it is enshrined in Art. 2 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. In this area, the key role belongs to the system law enforcement agencies: police, prosecutor's office, judicial system.
The law enforcement system is a set of state legal means, methods and guarantees that ensure a person’s protection from illegal actions from other citizens or government representatives. Its task includes the implementation of measures to prevent the violation of social ties and relationships, the protection of public order, the rights and legitimate interests of citizens, their teams and organizations, the reproduction and strengthening of the entire complex of institutions and relations of civil society. In this context, the effectiveness of state policy in the law enforcement sphere is determined by the degree of minimization of coercion and the activation of means directly related to the encouragement of positive legal behavior of citizens, their compliance with existing laws and regulations.
Of course, the internal policy of the state is by no means limited to the named areas, but they can be called key, on the effective solution of which the condition, well-being and prospects of society and the state depend. In general, it can be said that the internal policy of the state plays a decisive role in the creation and protection of social and economic infrastructure, the protection of all institutions of civil society and ensuring proper conditions for their viability and effective functioning.
Politics is the purposeful activity of the state to solve public problems, set and implement generally significant goals for the development of society or its individual spheres. At the same time, policy is also a means that allows the state to achieve certain goals in a specific area.
There are many classifications of policies. According to the criterion of directionality, they distinguish, as you know, internal
regional and foreign policy. Domestic policy is related to solving problems within the country, and foreign policy is related to solving problems in the international arena. Depending on what sphere of public life is affected, the following areas of domestic policy are distinguished: economic, social, state-legal, cultural. Sometimes cultural policy is seen as a component of social policy. Each of the areas of domestic policy is divided, in turn, according to industry. So, economic policy includes industrial, agricultural, tax, monetary, etc. policies.
Social policy is represented by health policy, demographic policy, national policy, youth policy, etc. The components of state policy are legislative, administrative, judicial, personnel, legal policy. Cultural policy is a policy in the field of education, cinema, theater, etc. Based on the completeness of coverage and impact on society, such types of policies as scientific and technical, environmental, and information are distinguished. They permeate all spheres of public life and therefore do not belong to any of them. Policy directions have their own structure and objects of influence. For example, agricultural policy includes the following elements: agricultural policy, agro-industrial policy, foreign agricultural policy. The objects of agricultural policy are agro-industrial associations, farms, etc.
Foreign policy also has directions: defense, foreign (between individuals and legal entities of different states), foreign economic, etc.
Structural detailing of state policy allows for more targeted implementation of programs and projects in a specific area.
According to the long-term criterion, strategic and tactical (current) policies are distinguished. Strategic policy by time interval can be long-term (10-15 years), medium-term (3-5 years) and short-term (1.5-2 years). Tactical policy is an activity aimed at achieving the intended strategic goals.
In the modern world, domestic policy is greatly influenced by an external factor - international politics.
The process of development of public policy includes four main stages, representing a kind of political cycle: identification of public problems and policy goals; development (formation) of policy; implementation
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creation of public policy; evaluation of the results of public policy.
At the first stage, socially significant problems and their causes are identified. For example, the deterioration of the demographic situation in Russia is associated with two factors: low fertility and high mortality, which, in turn, depend on other factors (remember the facts you know). To develop a policy in this area, it is necessary to understand the main reasons for this situation: the ineffectiveness of domestic healthcare, poverty, poor ecology, the growth of alcoholism, drug addiction, etc.
Second stage. Based on the analysis, goals (tasks) are determined. Thus, in the given example of a demographic situation, policy objectives are aimed at eliminating these causes. A hierarchy of goals is built in each area of public life. State institutions play a certain role in this process. For example, the general strategy of foreign and domestic policy is determined by the President of the Russian Federation. He also sets general goals for the federal executive authorities, which is reflected in his annual Address to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation on the situation in the country and the main directions of domestic and foreign policy states. The Government of the Russian Federation determines general specific goals, as well as a state policy strategy in individual areas. The main document of the Government is the medium-term program of socio-economic development Russian Federation. Parliament also takes part in policy-making through debate current problems, during the adoption of the budget, legislative acts related to individual areas of public policy. The complexity of social problems leads to the fact that when developing policies, public authorities (political leaders) resort to the help of not only professional officials (experts, analysts, speech writers, etc.), but also special research organizations - “think tanks” aimed at developing new ideas, approaches or programs.
Third stage. With the adoption of government programs, the policy development phase ends and the implementation phase begins. Here the executive authorities, primarily ministries, services and agencies, come to the fore. Their work is coordinated by the Government of the Russian Federation and the President of the Russian Federation. Federal ministries adopt by-laws (directives, orders, regulations, etc.). Federal services exercise control and supervision over their implementation. They also issue permits
tions (licenses) to carry out certain types of activities for legal entities and citizens, register acts and documents. Federal agencies exercise the powers of owners in relation to state property, provide services to other federal bodies (for example, in the development of standards), legal entities, and citizens. Providing quality services to the population is one of the pressing problems public administration in all countries, including Russia. The main thing in the provision of services is continuous service and speed of response to the needs of the population. Disruptions in the work of transport, criminal police, housing and communal services, etc. are unacceptable. Currently, many states are guided in their work by the list of basic services adopted in the European Union countries. It provides, for example, for citizens, payments from the social insurance fund (student scholarships, family benefits, etc.), actions in response to applications for assistance (in particular, theft, car theft), issuance of documents (passports, driver’s licenses) , civil registration. Public services for business include registration of new companies, etc.
In general, the policy implementation stage is a system of outcome-oriented activities, which is reflected in the work plans of ministries. They think through in advance a program of action for the implementation of assigned tasks: activity goals, main performers, standards of implementation (technical specifications), distribution of resources, standards and criteria for performance results. When implementing plans, various methods are used, primarily legal. Social-psychological (persuasion, agreements) and administrative (control, restrictions, quotas) methods are also widely used. Economic (taxes, tariffs, subsidies) and organizational methods acquired greater importance. For example, to identify suppliers of goods or performers of works and services, open competitions are held to help improve government orders.
At the fourth stage, the results and consequences of government policies are analyzed. A final assessment of the ongoing policy (program) and the work of government bodies is given. Thus, the activities of UK ministries are assessed on the basis unified methodology in the following areas: efficiency, effectiveness and economy. In the USA, it is recommended to evaluate the work of the city administration according to such indicators as the fulfillment of planned goals, unplanned effects, volume of services, time to complete work, and the degree of satisfaction of the population.
It should be noted that various interest groups, including lobbying groups, whose activities will be disclosed in subsequent paragraphs, have a great influence on public policy.
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