All human endocrine glands. Endocrine glands. Traditional methods of treating diseases of the endocrine system

Hormones are substances produced by the endocrine glands and released into the blood, their mechanism of action. The endocrine system is a collection of endocrine glands that produce hormones. Sex hormones.

For normal life, a person needs many substances that come from the external environment (food, air, water) or are synthesized inside the body. With a lack of these substances in the body, various disorders occur that can lead to serious diseases. These substances synthesized by endocrine glands inside the body include hormones .

First of all, it should be noted that humans and animals have two types of glands. Glands of one type - lacrimal, salivary, sweat and others - secrete the secret outward and are called exocrine (from the Greek exo- outside, outside, krino– highlight). The glands of the second type release the substances synthesized in them into the blood that washes them. These glands were called endocrine (from the Greek endon- inside), and substances released into the blood are hormones.

Thus, hormones (from the Greek hormaino– set in motion, induce) – biologically active substances produced by endocrine glands (see Figure 1.5.15) or special cells in tissues. Such cells can be found in the heart, stomach, intestines, salivary glands, kidneys, liver and other organs. Hormones are released into the bloodstream and have an effect on cells of target organs located at a distance or directly at the site of their formation (local hormones).

Hormones are produced in small quantities, but long time remain active and are distributed throughout the body through the bloodstream. The main functions of hormones are:

– maintaining the internal environment of the body;

– participation in metabolic processes;

– regulation of growth and development of the body.

A complete list of hormones and their functions are presented in Table 1.5.2.

Table 1.5.2. Basic hormones

Hormone	Which gland produces	Function
Adrenocorticotropic hormone	Pituitary	Controls the secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex
Aldosterone	Adrenal glands	Participates in the regulation of water-salt metabolism: retains sodium and water, removes potassium
Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)	Pituitary	Regulates the amount of urine excreted and, together with aldosterone, controls blood pressure
Glucagon	Pancreas	Increases blood glucose levels
Growth hormone	Pituitary	Manages the processes of growth and development; stimulates protein synthesis
Insulin	Pancreas	Lowers blood glucose levels; affects the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats in the body
Corticosteroids	Adrenal glands	Have an effect on the entire body; have pronounced anti-inflammatory properties; maintain blood sugar levels, blood pressure and muscle tone; participate in the regulation of water-salt metabolism
Luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone	Pituitary	Control reproductive functions, including sperm production in men, egg maturation and the menstrual cycle in women; responsible for the formation of male and female secondary sexual characteristics (distribution of hair growth areas, volume muscle mass, skin structure and thickness, voice timbre and perhaps even personality traits)
Oxytocin	Pituitary	Causes contraction of the muscles of the uterus and mammary ducts
Parathyroid hormone	Parathyroid glands	Controls bone formation and regulates the excretion of calcium and phosphorus in urine
Progesterone	Ovaries	Prepares the inner lining of the uterus for the implantation of a fertilized egg, and the mammary glands for milk production
Prolactin	Pituitary	Induces and maintains milk production in the mammary glands
Renin and angiotensin	Kidneys	Control blood pressure
Thyroid hormones	Thyroid gland	Regulate the processes of growth and maturation, the speed of metabolic processes in the body
Thyroid-stimulating hormone	Pituitary	Stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid hormones
Erythropoietin	Kidneys	Stimulates the formation of red blood cells
Estrogens	Ovaries	Control the development of female genital organs and secondary sexual characteristics

The structure of the endocrine system. Figure 1.5.15 shows the glands that produce hormones: hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (in women) and testes (in men). All glands and cells that secrete hormones are combined into the endocrine system.

The link between the endocrine and nervous systems is the hypothalamus, which is both a nerve formation and an endocrine gland.

It controls and combines endocrine regulatory mechanisms with nervous ones, being also the brain center vegetative nervous system . The hypothalamus contains neurons capable of producing special substances - neurohormones regulating the release of hormones by other endocrine glands. The central organ of the endocrine system is also the pituitary gland. The remaining endocrine glands are classified as peripheral organs of the endocrine system.

Follicle-stimulating And luteinizing Hormones stimulate sexual function and the production of hormones by the gonads. The ovaries of women produce estrogens, progesterone, and androgens, and the testes of men produce androgens.

Metabolism is supported by many body systems. One of the important controls over metabolism is the human endocrine system. The endocrine system fulfills its purpose thanks to biologically active substances called hormones. Hormones can penetrate into organs and tissues through the intercellular space or through the bloodstream.

A certain part of endocrine cells are collected into a single structure and represent endocrine glands. The other part is diffusely scattered throughout the body and are, in fact, a diffuse part of the endocrine system.

The main functions of the endocrine system are:

• Organizes and coordinates the coordinated work of almost the entire human body
• Directly involved in most chemical processes in the body
• Promotes consistency of internal environment under changing environmental conditions
• Participates in the regulation of human development and growth
• Participates in processes directly related to reproductive function
• Capable of generating the necessary energy
• Plays a certain role in the formation of a person’s emotional background

The pituitary gland is a human endocrine organ

It is an important part of the endocrine system, located in the so-called sella turcica and is an appendage of the brain. Together with the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland forms the hypothalamic-pituitary system, through which the entire hormonal status of the body is controlled.

The pituitary gland consists of two parts: adeno- and neurohypophysis. The pituitary gland produces six important dominant hormones (such as ACTH, thyroid-stimulating hormone), 4 hormones that regulate the function of the reproductive system, and somatotropin, which is involved in the growth process.

Another important organ of the endocrine system is thyroid gland. This gland is located in the neck, in front of the larynx and has two lobes.

The thyroxine and triiodothyronine it produces are involved in metabolism and in the processes of formation of organs and tissues. The thyroid gland also produces a hormone necessary for the musculoskeletal system, calcitonin.

It directly participates in and regulates bone calcium metabolism in the bone. The work of the thyroid gland is closely related and dependent on the hypothalamic-pituitary system, gonads and adrenal glands.

In order for the thyroid gland to function normally, a sufficient amount of iodine in the blood is necessary.

Human endocrine system: parathyroid glands

The parathyroid glands are small glands located at the bottom of each lobe of the thyroid gland. Despite their small size, these glands are necessary for the body to control the level of biological calcium in the circulatory system.

With a sharp drop in calcium in the blood, the parathyroid glands begin to produce parathyroid hormone, forcing the bones to release their calcium into the blood. The bone apparatus weakens, but the nervous system can function normally.

Human endocrine system: adrenal glands

The adrenal glands are glands that define their location by name - they are located in the upper pole of the kidneys. The adrenal glands are the main suppliers of such well-known hormones as adrenaline and norepinephrine into the blood.

Adrenaline and norepinephrine are classified as catecholamines in their structure. These hormones are always kept in low titres at rest.

At the same time, when a person experiences stress or fear, the level of adrenaline and norepinephrine increases sharply.

Adrenaline increases blood pressure, constricts bronchial vessels, dilates the pupil and makes the heart work harder. In this state, a person is able to make quick decisions and act in case of danger.

Norepinephrine is a precursor of adrenaline, does not cause such a pronounced effect on internal organs and the heart, but, nevertheless, is more capable of constricting blood vessels. Pathology of the adrenal glands is often disguised as diseases of the kidneys, heart, etc.

human endocrine organ

True to its name, it is located under the stomach. For the most part, this gland produces digestive enzymes, which are excreted through the ducts into the duodenum.

However, in the pancreas there are islets that produce two hormones that are opposite in their action - insulin and glucagon. Insulin helps the blood glucose level decrease, while glucagon, on the contrary, increases it.

These two important hormones are involved in carbohydrate metabolism in the human body.

Sex glands play an important role in reproductive system person. Women's ovaries produce one or several eggs each menstrual cycle.

In addition, the ovaries produce female hormones estrogen and progesterone, which influence not only the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, but also the normal course of pregnancy. In men, the gonads (testicles) produce seminal fluid necessary for fertilization of the female egg and male hormones: testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone and androstenedione.

Diseases of the endocrine system, unfortunately, are difficult to diagnose due to the blurred clinical picture. Therefore, if any problems occur in the body, you must contact a specialist.

Our body has many organs and systems; in fact, it is a unique natural mechanism. It takes a lot of time to study the human body completely. But getting a general idea is not that difficult. Especially if this is necessary to understand any of your illnesses.

Internal secretion

The word “endocrine” itself comes from a Greek phrase and means “to secrete inside.” This system of the human body normally provides us with all the hormones we may need.

Thanks to the endocrine system, many processes occur in our body:

• growth, comprehensive development:
• metabolism;
• energy production;
• coordinated work of everyone internal organs and systems;
• correction of certain disorders in body processes;
• generation of emotions, behavior management.

The importance of hormones is enormous

Already at the moment when a tiny cell - an unborn child - begins to develop under a woman’s heart, it is hormones that regulate this process.

We need the formation of these compounds for literally everything. Even to fall in love.

What does the endocrine system consist of?

The main organs of the endocrine system are:

• thyroid and thymus glands;
• pineal gland and pituitary gland;
• adrenal glands;
• pancreas;
• testes in men or ovaries in women.

All these organs (glands) are united endocrine cells. But in our body, in almost all tissues, there are individual cells that also produce hormones.

To distinguish between united and scattered secretory cells, the general human endocrine system is divided into:

• glandular (it includes endocrine glands)
• diffuse (in this case we are talking about individual cells).

What are the functions of organs and cells of the endocrine system?

The answer to this question is in the table below:

Organ	What is he responsible for?
Hypothalamus	Control over hunger, thirst, sleep. Sending commands to the pituitary gland.
Pituitary	Releases growth hormone. Together with the hypothalamus, it coordinates the interaction of the endocrine and nervous systems.
Thyroid, parathyroid, thymus glands	They regulate the processes of human growth and development, the functioning of his nervous, immune and motor systems.
Pancreas	Monitoring blood glucose levels.
Adrenal cortex	They regulate the activity of the heart and blood vessels and control metabolic processes.
Gonads (testes/ovaries)	They produce sex cells and are responsible for reproduction processes.

1. The “area of ​​responsibility” of the main endocrine glands, that is, the organs of the glandular ES, is described here.
2. The organs of the diffuse endocrine system perform their own functions, and at the same time the endocrine cells in them are busy producing hormones. These organs include the stomach, spleen, intestines, etc. All these organs produce various hormones that regulate the activities of the “hosts” themselves and help them interact with the human body as a whole.

It is now known that our glands and individual cells produce about thirty types of different hormones. All of them are released into the blood in different quantities and at different frequencies. In fact, we live only thanks to hormones.

Endocrine system and diabetes mellitus

If the activity of any endocrine gland is disrupted, various diseases occur.

All of them affect our health and life. In some cases, improper hormone production literally changes a person's appearance. For example, without growth hormone a person looks like a dwarf, and a woman without the proper development of reproductive cells cannot become a mother.

The pancreas is designed to produce the hormone insulin. Without it, the breakdown of glucose in the body is impossible. In the first type of disease, insulin production is too low, and this disrupts normal metabolic processes. The second type of diabetes means that the internal organs literally refuse to accept insulin.

Impaired glucose metabolism in the body triggers many dangerous processes. Example:

1. There was no breakdown of glucose in the body.
2. To find energy, the brain gives a signal to break down fats.
3. During this process, not only the necessary glycogen is formed, but also special compounds - ketones.

The human endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that synthesize hormones into the blood. It is necessary for humoral regulation and consists of separate organs called glands.

The physiology of the endocrine system is built on controlling the interaction of the endocrine and nervous systems through the synthesis of certain substances. This can be seen in the interaction between glucose and insulin, which is necessary to maintain the desired balance of substances in the blood. This control is carried out using substances called hormones.

The concept of effector systems allows us to distinguish between the nervous and endocrine systems. Effectors of the nervous system activate a specific muscle or group of muscles, effector cells of the endocrine system activate hormone receptors. Effectors have one important feature: they trigger hormonal synthesis using special cells that make up the endocrine organ.

The peculiarity of the human body is that hormones can be produced not only by endocrine cells, but also by other cells, only in small quantities.

Endocrine cells, brought together, turn into a gland that regulates metabolic processes in the human body. The anatomy of the glands divides them into endocrine and exocrine. The first release hormones into the lymph and blood.

The main anatomical feature of the exocrine glands is the excretory ducts necessary to bring secretions to the surface, for example, the salivary glands secrete saliva, and the sweat glands secrete sweat.

Endocrine glands and their features

What does the human endocrine system consist of, what are its anatomical features? General characteristics The endocrine system includes a description of the glands presented in the table below.

Pineal gland	Thymus	Pituitary	Pancreas
Diffuse endocrine system includes the pineal gland, a gland related to the epithalamus. The organ produces the hormones serotonin, melatonin, and adrenoglomerulotropin.	The thymus consists of two lobes, produces the hormones thymosin and thymopoietin and is an important part of the immune system.	The pituitary gland is the highest vegetative center of the human body, controlled by the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland takes part in controlling the functioning of internal organs and some parts of the brain. The pituitary gland consists of three parts: the neurohypophysis, the intermediate lobe, and the adenohypophysis. The pituitary gland produces hormones: prolactin and samototropin.	The pancreatic hormones glucagon and insulin are produced in the islets of Langerhans. Insulin regulates fat and carbohydrate metabolic processes, glucagon is responsible for the level of glucose in the blood serum. The alpha cells of the pancreas are essential for the proper functioning of the liver.

Thyroid gland	Parathyroid glands	Sex glands
The human thyroid gland synthesizes thyroxine, triiodothyronine, calcitonin, which stimulate energy metabolism, fat and protein, which influence the growth and development of the child’s body and the functioning of the heart apparatus.	The parathyroid glands or parathyroid glands are a paired organ that synthesizes parathyroid hormones and parthirin, which are necessary to maintain normal calcium levels in the blood. Disruption of the parathyroid glands and their normal structure leads to the destruction of bone tissue, the appearance of kidney stones and memory problems; in severe cases, titania develops, leading to death.	The human gonads, testes in men and ovaries in women, secrete male and female hormones into the blood. The testes secrete androgens, the ovaries secrete estrogens.

Pathophysiology of the endocrine system examines the dysfunction of the glands and subsequent altered levels of hormone secretion and destroyed endocrine cells.

Changes in the level of hormone synthesis are caused by the reasons indicated in the table:

Violation of self-regulation and relationships in the system of endocrine glands	The problem is caused by damage to the hypothalamus or pituitary gland.
Inability to synthesize and transmit hormones	Caused by disruption of the structure of the glands due to injuries, hemorrhages and thrombosis, as well as as a result of intoxication during various acute infections. For example, the adrenal glands can be damaged by mumps, rubella, and tuberculosis.
Development of autoallergic problems	Problems arise when the barriers separating the endocrine organ and the blood are destroyed as a result of allergic processes.
Blocking cell metabolism	Leads to changes in hormone production as a result of the lack of enzymes necessary for this; the cause of this problem is often a genetic defect.
Depletion of the system or its individual organs	A lack of iodine or vitamin A can lead to exhaustion.
Violation of the process of hormone deposition	Associated with thyroid depletion.

The pathophysiology of the endocrine system includes its own research methods, which include:

• blood test for hormone levels;
• radiography;
• palpation;
• computed tomography;

The diffuse endocrine system has its own characteristics and is represented by cells scattered throughout the human body that synthesize aglandular peptides. Each organ has endocrine cells, the largest number of which are in the mucous membranes and in the digestive organs.

Diseases of the diffuse endocrine system are called apudopathy:

• gastrinoma;
• insulinoma;
• carcinoid;
• medullary thyroid oncology.

Most often, a person is affected by carcinoid; the neoplasm can occur in the appendix, intestines, bronchi, gallbladder, pancreas. Carcinoid is a malignant tumor that has a nested structure, secreting serotonin, histamine, bradykinin, substances that destroy the heart, liver and lungs.

Endocrine system of children

The child’s endocrine system has a complex structure that adapts to environmental factors and the functioning of internal organs.

The anatomy of the endocrine organs of a child does not differ from that of an adult; the main hormonal center is the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic hormones regulate the functions of the pituitary gland.

The structure of the child's pituitary gland:

• The anterior lobe synthesizes somatotropic, thyrotropic, adenocorticotropic, and follicle-stimulating.
• The middle and intermediate lobes secrete melatropin.
• The posterior lobe synthesizes vasopressin and oxytocin.

The next important organ, the normal functioning of which supports the growth and development of a growing organism, is the thyroid gland. In newborns it weighs up to 5 g, adolescence the mass of the gland increases to 14 grams, the thyroid gland fully matures by the age of fifteen.

An essential organ in the anatomy of the endocrine system in children is the pancreas, which produces insulin and glucagon, substances that affect blood glucose levels. The pancreas also synthesizes somatostatin, which is necessary for the physical development and growth of children.

IN anatomical structure In addition to the thyroid and pancreas, one can note the parathyroid glands and adrenal glands, which are necessary for the normal development of the skeleton, immunity and psyche.

The parathyroid glands are a paired organ in structure, the peak of activity of which occurs in the first two years of a child’s life; the secreted parathyroid hormone regulates phosphorus and calcium metabolism. Decreased calcium levels lead to seizures, tooth decay and increased excitability children. Increased level calcium - kidney stones, weakness and muscle pain, constipation.

The formation of sexual characteristics is carried out by the gonads, the laying of which occurs over nine months in the mother’s womb. The female or male genotype is fully formed by the time the child is born.

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Everyone knows that every person has an endocrine system. What is it? The endocrine system is a collection of certain human (or animal) organs that produce the necessary hormones for the body. An important feature of the endocrine system is that it controls the functioning of almost all organs, supporting and adapting human body to changing conditions.

The endocrine system (endocrine glands) performs the following functions:

• controls the functioning of all human organs and systems;
• adapts the human body to changing conditions;
• regulates the development and growth of the body;
• helps preserve and properly use the body’s energy;
• ensures the reproductive function of the body;
• helps differentiate gender differences;
• supports the mental and emotional organization of a person.

Human endocrine system

So what is the endocrine system? Biology, which deals with the structure and functioning of animal organisms, distinguishes the glandular and diffuse apparatus in the human endocrine system. The glandular apparatus produces peptide and steroid hormones, as well as thyroid hormones. Endocrine substances of the glandular apparatus are produced within one organ, released into the lymph or blood.

The anatomical and physiological features of the endocrine system of the glandular apparatus are represented by the following organs:

• Hypothalamus and pituitary gland. These organs are located in the human cranial region and perform storage and control functions. In particular, the pituitary gland plays the role of the main controlling organ, which regulates the functioning of all other organs of the endocrine system.
• Thyroid gland. Located in the front of the human neck, the thyroid gland is responsible for the production of iodine-containing hormones, which are necessary for regulating metabolism and growth of the body. The follicles that make up the gland contain the hormones thyroxine, triiodothyronine and calcitonin.
• Parathyroid glands. This gland, located near the thyroid gland, performs the nervous and motor functions of the body by regulating calcium levels in the body.
• Pancreas. Located in abdominal cavity between duodenum and the spleen, this gland produces pancreatic juice, as well as hormones such as glucagon, insulin and ghrelin (the hunger hormone).
• Adrenal glands. Located on top of the kidneys, these glands regulate the synthesis of carbohydrates, the breakdown of proteins, and also produce adrenaline.
• Gonads. This male testicles and the female ovaries, which produce male (androgynous) and female (estrogens) hormones.
• Epiphysis Located in the skull, this organ produces melatonin (affects the order of sleep phases) and norepinephrine (affects blood circulation and the nervous system).
• Thymus. Located between the lungs, this thymus gland produces hormones that regulate the development and maturation of immune system cells.

Thus, it is the main endocrine system. The anatomy of the diffuse endocrine system is scattered throughout the body, since its hormones are found in almost every tissue of the body. The main organs that will be included in the list of the diffuse endocrine apparatus should be considered the liver, kidneys, stomach, intestines and spleen.

Patients often experience pathology of the endocrine system, expressed in hypofunction, dysfunction or hyperfunction of the endocrine glands. These pathologies can manifest themselves in the following diseases:

• diabetes and overweight(pancreatic diseases);
• hypercalcemia, parathyroid osteodystrophy (diseases of the parathyroid gland);
• diseases of the immune system (diseases of the thymus gland);
• thyrotoxicosis, hypothyroidism, thyroid cancer, cretinism (thyroid disease);
• benign and malignant tumors (apudomma, gastrinoma, glucagonoma, somatostatinoma);
• hypertension, myocardial infarction, cardiovascular diseases(adrenal gland diseases);
• fibroids, infertility, mastopathy, endometriosis, cystosis, ovarian cancer (gonadal diseases).

Endocrine system of children and animals

The endocrine system in children determines growth and development, and is also involved in the neurohumoral regulation of the body. Physiologically, the endocrine system in children is represented by the same organs as in an adult, but with the difference that the functioning of the glands does not work at full capacity. So, up to a certain point, the gonad system secretes only a small part of the hormones, and in adolescence, on the contrary, their production is explosive. Any deviations in the functioning of the organs of the endocrine system must be investigated and treated, since the consequences can be disastrous for the entire body as a whole and affect future life.

The endocrine system of animals is represented by a different set of endocrine glands, depending on which class of the animal world they belong to. So in insects, the endocrine glands already control metabolism, as well as puberty, growth and behavior of the body. In vertebrates, endocrine organs are involved in ion balance, metabolism, immunity, and wound healing. Sex hormones play a major role in the lives of animals, which are aimed at producing estrogen, progesterone and testosterone, which are responsible for the reproduction of offspring.