Horizontal :
Joint activities, as a result of which all parties receive one or another benefit.
System of views, views on nature and society
Expression of a person’s ideas about the world around him, his point of view, feelings, beliefs and desires
5. Comprehension of reality by consciousness
6. A creature opposed to the external world as an object of knowledge
7. An ancient folk tale about legendary heroes, about the origin of natural phenomena
9. The totality of human achievements in production, social and spiritual terms
11. A set of people united by material wealth at a certain stage of historical development
12. Progressively moving forward, improvement in the process of development
15. Stage of social development and material culture
16. Development, the process of gradual continuous quantitative change in someone (something), preparing qualitative changes
18. Human community as a result of historically established forms of human activity
20. Self-centered person inner world
22. The ability of one person to captivate many with a cause or idea
23. Social gender, which defines a person in society and how this behavior is perceived
24. The process of combining parts into a whole
27. Philosophical direction that recognizes sensory perception and experience as the only source of knowledge
29. A person’s ability to reason, which is the process of reflecting objective reality in ideas, judgments, and concepts
31. A living being with the gift of thinking and speech, the ability to create tools and use them in the process of social labor
32. Decline in the development of something; moving backwards
Vertical :
3. The ability to think, reason and determine one’s attitude to reality as a property of human higher nervous activity
Relationships between people characterized by overt or hidden struggle
8. The set of meanings attached, one way or another, to the elements of any natural science or abstract deductive theory
10. The science of the most general laws development of nature, society and thinking
13. Scientific assumption put forward to explain any phenomena
14. Individual person, representative of the human race
17. Relatively established thinking pattern
19. The right and opportunity to dispose of someone (something), to subordinate it to one’s will
21. Expedient and socially useful human activity that requires mental and physical stress
25. Transformation, changing something
28. Humanity in social activities, in relation to people
30. A system of views, ideas, ideas expressing the interests of a particular society or social community
Answers:
| 1. cooperation 2. worldview 3. subjectivity 5. knowledge 6. subject 7. myth 9. culture 11. society 12. progress 15. civilization 16. evolution 18. society 20. introvert 22. leadership 23. gender 24. integration 26. charisma 27. empiricism 29. thinking 31. people 32. regression | 3. consciousness 4. rivalry 8. interpretation 10. philosophy 13. hypothesis 14. individual 17. stereotype 19. power 21. labor 25. reform 28. humanism 30. ideology |
Critical thinking Critical thinking is independent thinking, it is individual in nature, information is the starting point, and by no means the end point of critical thinking. Critical thinking begins with asking questions and understanding the problems that need to be solved. critical thinking strives for convincing argumentation; critical thinking is social thinking. David Kluster, Professor, Lecturer in American Literature, Hope College, Holland, Michigan, USA.
Teacher: a view from the inside Any teacher is characterized by three basic feelings: - a sense of hierarchy - a sense of stage - a sense of self-influence Each of these feelings can be expressed in a weak, medium and strong degree. But they are necessarily inherent in the psychology of the teacher.
Paths to success Remember that too high performance according to the three basic pedagogical feelings, they not only reduce the effectiveness of the learning process, but can also harm your health. There are no clearly right and wrong thoughts. When we are given positive attention, we think better. Take pauses. Silence is also a powerful form of work. Plan islands of uncertainty in your lessons. They guarantee creativity
INSERT Technique V - mark this in the margin if what you read matches what you know or thought you knew; – - put this note in the margin if what you read contradicts what you know, or thought you knew; + - put this note in the margin if what you are reading is new to you; ? - put this note in the margin if what you are reading is not clear, or if you would like more detailed information on this issue.
19 Recommended reading I.O. Zagashev, S.I. Zair-Bek, I.V. Mushtavinskaya Teaching children to think critically “Alliance-Delta”, St. Petersburg, 2003 See: Petrov Yu. N. On the technology of developing critical thinking / / Chemistry at school C; Petrov Yu. P., Tsareva V. V. On the use of technology “Reading and writing for the development of critical thinking” // Chemistry at school S; Petrov Yu. N. On the application of the “Parallel Texts” strategy // Chemistry at school C
In general, with regard to the concept of “thinking”, several views should be noted.
Firstly, as indicated explanatory dictionary S.I. Ozhegova, thinking is “a person’s ability to reason, which is the process of reflecting objective reality in ideas, judgments, and concepts.”
Let's look at this concept. A person would know very little about the world around him if his knowledge were limited only to the readings of his analyzers. The possibility of deep and broad knowledge of the world opens up human thinking. There is no need to prove that the figure has four corners, since we see this with the help of an analyzer (vision). But we cannot see, hear, or feel that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs. This kind of concept is indirect.
Thus, thinking is indirect cognition. Thinking is also the knowledge of relationships and natural connections between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. In order to identify these connections, a person resorts to mental operations - compares, juxtaposes facts, analyzes them, generalizes, draws conclusions.
And, finally, thinking is a generalized cognition of reality, the process of cognition of the general and essential properties of objects and phenomena.
And this process is quite accessible to children. As V.V. Davydov’s research shows, children of primary school age are quite capable of mastering the elements of algebra, for example, establishing relationships between quantities. To identify the relationships between quantities, it turned out to be necessary to model these relationships - to express them in another material form, in which they appear, as it were, in a purified form and become an indicative basis for actions.
IN psychological science There are such forms of thinking as:
concepts;
judgments;
inferences.
A concept is a reflection in the human mind of the general and essential properties of an object or phenomenon. A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the general and, moreover, essential properties of objects and phenomena. Every object, every phenomenon has many different properties and characteristics. These properties, signs can be divided into two categories - essential and non-essential. For example, each individual triangle has three angles, certain dimensions - the length of the sides and area, a certain size of the angles, and shape. But only the first sign makes the figure a triangle and allows it to be distinguished from other figures: rectangle, circle, trapezoid. The remaining features distinguish one triangle from another; if they change, the triangle will not cease to be a triangle. Equally, each individual tree also has characteristics that make it possible to distinguish it from a bush or grass (i.e., essential characteristics), for example, the presence of a trunk, and those that distinguish one tree from another, for example, age, number of branches, preservation of bark, presence of a hollow, etc.
The concept acts both as a form of thinking and as a special mental action. Behind each concept there is a special objective action hidden. Concepts can be:
general and individual;
concrete and abstract;
empirical and theoretical.
A general concept is a thought that reflects the general, essential and distinctive (specific) characteristics of objects and phenomena of reality. A single concept is a thought that reflects the characteristics inherent only to a separate object and phenomenon. Depending on the type of abstraction and generalizations underlying them, concepts are empirical or theoretical. The empirical concept captures the same items in each separate class of items based on comparison. The specific content of the theoretical concept is the objective connection between the universal and the individual (whole and different). Concepts are formed in socio-historical experience. A person acquires a system of concepts in the process of life and activity.
Each new generation of people assimilates scientific, technical, moral, aesthetic and other concepts developed by society in the process of historical development. To master a concept means to understand its content, to be able to identify essential features, to know exactly its boundaries (scope), its place among other concepts so as not to be confused with similar concepts; be able to use this concept in cognitive and practical activities.
A concept exists in the form of the meaning of a word and is denoted by a word. Each word generalizes (except, of course, words denoting proper names). In concepts, our knowledge about objects and phenomena of reality crystallizes in a generalized and abstract form. In this respect, the concept differs significantly from the perception and representation of memory: perception and representation are concrete, figurative, and visual; the concept has a generalized, abstract, non-visual character.
The content of concepts is revealed in judgments, which are always expressed in verbal form - oral or written, out loud or silently. Judgment is the main form of thinking, during which connections between objects and phenomena of reality are affirmed or denied. Judgment is a reflection of the connections between objects and phenomena of reality or between their properties and characteristics. Judgment is a form of thinking that contains the affirmation or denial of any position regarding objects, phenomena or their properties. Examples of an affirmative judgment include statements such as “The student knows the lesson” or “The psyche is a function of the brain.” Negative judgments include those judgments that note the absence of certain characteristics in an object. For example: “This word is not a verb” or “This river is not navigable.”
For example, the proposition: “Metals expand when heated” expresses the relationship between changes in temperature and the volume of metals.
(VIA THE NEBULS OF THE RUSSIAN WORDAL LANGUAGE)
Many complimentary reviews can be devoted to the Russian verbal language, but if there are shortcomings in it, then in order to eliminate them we need to talk about them. There is no hostility towards language in this; there is a desire to understand the nebulae that specialists have voluntarily or unwittingly included in dictionaries when interpreting certain concepts, and, if possible, to correct shortcomings.
It is no secret that the vagueness of language turns into vagueness of speech when used and makes it difficult to form the right thought, which, in turn, interferes with the mutual understanding of communicating people and making the right decisions.
Modern science persistently explores the mystery of the formation of human thought and brings us closer to a new era - the era of the creation and functioning of artificial thinking means. On this path, among the most important are the tasks of creating a language understandable to both humans and artificially thinking means, as well as methods for the formation of artificial thought that is appropriate for reflecting human speech. The difficulty of the task is aggravated by the fact that artificial intelligence tools can only work in an environment of standardized concepts. The context for clarifying this or that concept of the applied term, on which human thought often relies, even if it is ever implemented for an artificially thinking tool, will always be a factor that reduces the productivity, reliability, and quality of its work.
Currently, in dictionaries there are frequent cases when a term is interpreted by many concepts, when its concept is vague or is replaced by one or more other terms that also do not have clear definitions. For example: the term “life” has 14 interpretations, and the term “fabrication” is explained through four other terms: fiction, fabrication, invention, lie.
There are four terms in the title of the article. They seem to be well known, the reader can give explanations for each of them and not believe that the definitions of these terms in dictionaries are vague. But, unfortunately, this is so.
Before starting to read the article, I ask the reader to write down on a piece of paper his idea of language, speech, thought, and thinking.
“Dictionary of the Russian language” by S.I. Ozhegova explains these terms as follows:
Language is a system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means that objectifies thinking and is a tool of communication.
Language is speech, the ability to speak, and also a system of signs that convey information.
In other dictionaries, in addition to this, we find that language is a means of storing information.
Speech is the ability to speak (speaking); language style; sounding language; conversation, conversation, public speaking; one of the types of human communication activities that uses language.
Thought is thinking; idea; that which fills consciousness; beliefs and views.
Thinking is a person’s ability to reason, which is the process of reflecting objective reality in ideas, judgments, and concepts.
"Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary Russian language", Moscow, ed. “Science”, 2003 gives the following interpretations of the terms language and speech:
Language is a system of linguistic and extra-linguistic means of expressing one or another content (text), their speech organization.
Speech is the functioning of language in the process of communication.
A speech act is a purposeful speech action performed in accordance with the norms of communication accepted in a given society; elementary unit of linguistic communication.
Probably, reader, your ideas about the terms turned out to be not so comprehensive, but the purpose of the article is not to upset you. On the contrary, I propose to have an interesting time immersing yourself in exploring the concepts of these terms. And for this, not only dictionary interpretations are necessary, but your ideas about them are also important. Next, I will offer my definitions of language, speech, thought and thinking. This means that you will be able to carry out a critical analysis of the concepts of terms based on three judgments: yours, the dictionary and mine. I am sure that the result of your research work there will be intellectual elevation.
Think, I will “rock the boat.”
I'll start by describing how we perceive, feel and reflect reality (reality).
The world around us is represented by objects and phenomena. Objects are understood as physical bodies from galaxies to particles of energy radiation. Phenomena are understood as events, the signs of which are revealed by our thinking. For example, the electromagnetic field around a conductor along which it moves electric current, rain, wind, snowfall, night, day, sky, force, movement and much more.
As is known, a person has six organs of perception of external information: vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch and a sense of the direction of gravity created by the vestibular apparatus. Considering that the result of their “work” is a signal or an electrical impulse that is transmitted from them to the brain along a nerve fiber, we can limit the consideration of the process of our sensations within the framework of a fundamental diagram: information about images and phenomena of reality - organs of perception - reason - mind - memory . When an electrical impulse arrives at a neuron in the brain, as science suggests, a change in its biochemical composition occurs. Information that comes to us, for example, in the form of photons of light reflected from objects, is converted into an electrical impulse, and then into a biochemical change in the brain cell. A set of neurons with an altered biochemical structure stores the ideas we have formed as images and signs of objects and phenomena of reality. They, taking into account the mutual connections between neurons, constitute a complex of knowledge or a set of concepts about reality.
Why am I writing this? - so that the reader remembers how these ideas were formed in his brain when he was still very small and could not speak. A year or two later, he, at first hesitantly, ineptly, inaccurately began to use words - codes of those concepts that he had already formed: mom, dad. Before application, he formed these codes by listening to the voices of his loved ones, gradually connecting their visual images with auditory ones. A person retains this method of cognition and coding of reality throughout his life. Concepts are primary, their codes and verbal descriptions of concepts - definitions - are secondary.
When perceiving verbal information, the mind of the listening or reading person supplies the mind with codes (words). The mind uses codes to establish connections with the concepts that make up its knowledge. If concepts exist and are in memory, the received information becomes understandable to a person; if not, then he does not understand the information. If the knowledge bases of the accepted code contain other concepts, then the person understands the received information in his own way. To confirm this, remember what Turkishsides and Murmisides look like.
Note:Turkisides and Murmisides were invented in 1964 by a student at the Moscow State Institute of Culture Ivan Makarovich Fedorov while preparing a sketch on directing and acting.
Can't? What does Cheburashka look like? You can. Having heard a word, the concept of which is absent in a person’s memory, he perceives it as a set of phonemes.
The concept code is the header of the information block artificially created by the mind, which is the concept. It was the process of coding concepts that provided a person with the opportunity to convey information (a set of concepts) in a compressed form. If this invention had not happened, a person would only have the ability to copy images and signs of objects and phenomena of reality to transmit information, which in some cases is extremely difficult. But the success of coding concepts when they are transferred from one person to another depends on whether the receiving party has the received code and the concept that it entitles in memory. The absence of one of these factors excludes the possibility of understanding the incoming information.
I hope that with this description I did not irritate the reader.
Next, I offer my definitions of the stated terms.
Thinking is the process of sequential formation of mental categories by the mind.
A mental category is a set of impulses from neurons activated by the mind, forming a thematic block of information for its subsequent reflection.
Thinking can only be conceptual, based on reality, on what constitutes the basis of knowledge. Its initial quality is the flow of impulses from activated memory neurons to information processing complexes.
The process of thinking is not felt by us and the first phase of its objectification is the formation of thought.
A thought is a sequence of codes of concepts of a mental category.
With the formation of thought, we feel the emergence of a sequence of concept codes, forming a thematic block of information about someone or something, its possibilities critical analysis, editing and making decisions about reflection into the external environment in the chosen way. The peculiarity of thought is its connection with concepts, which, like a ghost, follow the codes of thought.
Note: The reader may have already encountered the definitions of the terms: thinking, thought, and phrases - mental category, in the previously published article “Reason, mind, thinking.”
A concept is a set of a person’s ideas about an object or phenomenon of reality, formed by his mind.
When the task of reflecting a thought into the external environment arises, the mind transmits the thought to the brain structure that controls the human biological organs to reflect it. The thought is then reflected through voice, writing, mime, dance, gesture, painting, sculpture and other media. These means are called language.
Let's open the explanatory dictionary, in it we will see terms (codes) with verbal definitions or interpretations of concepts, systematized in alphabetical order. This is a dictionary of the national language. Let's open a topographic map of the area, and we will encounter the language of the map - conventional signs, each of which is associated with a specific interpretation related to some concept of an element of the area. We are also familiar with sign language: we either speak it, or have seen other people speak it.
Is language a storehouse of information? Of course not. He is unable to perform memory functions. The existing connection between codes and concepts, first of all, exists in a person’s memory and is stored there. Publishing it in books or documents, again, is not the dignity of the language, but the dignity of these books and documents. Language is also not a carrier of a nation’s culture and only allows one to judge its intelligence based on the composition of codes and definitions of concepts that reflect the area of known (in demand) reality. Language has no style and cannot be called speech. It is a tool, one of the signs of its quality is the correctness and unambiguous interpretation of the coded concepts.
Human language is a means of objectifying thinking (representing thoughts), based on the coding of concepts of reality, through verbal, symbolic, color, grammatical, associative and other constructions, reflected and perceived during communication (communication) using light and sound waves.
What is speech? Talking, conversation, conversation? But the first, second, third and public speech is the sound of words (codes) or the manifestation of verbal language in a sequence of thoughts. What about texts that don’t sound? Aren't they speech before they are spoken? In those cited from the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S.I. In Ozhegov’s interpretations, the terms speech and language are synonymous. But some kind of imperfection is felt in this. A collection of conventional symbols for a cartographic description of an area cannot be considered a map of some area. The language of the card and its speech are essentially different. In relation to verbal language and verbal speech, this difference between them also exists. Verbal speech is called “sounding language” by dictionaries, but in the grammar of the Russian language there is a list of parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb, etc.). Perplexity arises: does a noun cease to be a noun if it does not appear to us in the form of a sounding language? Most likely, we need to draw a conclusion that the definition of the term speech (verbal) in dictionaries is incorrect.
Remember the phrase native speech. What does it mean to us? Right! - a correctly established relationship between words and concepts that hide behind them, like a ghost. But this is not one code with a concept, but a set of codes with concepts, built by thinking according to the rules of grammar into sentences expressing an event. What does non-native speech mean? This is when we have no concepts behind the codes, or when neither the codes nor the concepts are known to us, or when the rules of grammar are violated, or when the presented set of codes with their concepts, being an arbitrary set of information, does not express events.
Speech is a set of thoughts, constructed according to established rules, presented by means of language.
Verbal speech is a set of thoughts, built according to the rules of grammar into sentences, presented by means of verbal language.
Verbal speech can be mental, textual, spoken. It is built on the basis of verbal language. The use of other means of language gives rise to a different type of speech, which can be transformed on the basis of concepts into verbal speech. So the speech of a topographic map can be presented in the form of textual verbal descriptions, speech based on sign language can also be translated into verbal spoken or textual speech. The speech of the ballet is presented as a libretto. Speech is the essence of what a person thinks, speaks, writes, or represents.
How are parts of verbal speech understood in this case: noun, adjective, and so on? – as classification codes in the structure of this type of speech. I would call them first order classification codes. Next, I would introduce the concept of second-order classification codes for parts of speech in a sentence. So a first-order code, a noun in a sentence can be coded as a subject, or it can be an object. In modern grammar, parts of a sentence represent an independent section and are not correlated with speech. But it is sentences that define the concept of verbal speech - a thought that reflects the essence of someone or something. Based on the above, it is advisable to refer to the phrase part of a sentence as parts of speech in a sentence.
Speech, and only it, is the carrier of the culture or intelligence of a nation, reflecting the quality of thinking of its people. Speech has a style, and only through it are information bases formed in our memory and in the memory of technical storage devices. The current assumption that these qualities of speech belong to language is erroneous.
That's all. I’m exhausted from “rocking the boat” and leave the reader on the crest of thoughts.
Thought processes
Human mental activity is the solution of various mental problems aimed at revealing the essence of something. A mental operation is one of the methods of mental activity through which a person solves mental problems.
Mental operations are varied. This is analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction, specification, generalization, classification. Which logical operations a person uses will depend on the task and on the nature of the information that he is subjected to mental processing.
Analysis is the mental decomposition of a whole into parts or the mental isolation of its sides, actions, and relationships from the whole. Synthesis is the opposite process of thought to analysis; it is the unification of parts, properties, actions, relationships into one whole. Analysis and synthesis are two interrelated logical operations. Synthesis, like analysis, can be both practical and mental. Analysis and synthesis were formed in the practical activities of man. IN labor activity people constantly interact with objects and phenomena. Their practical mastery led to the formation of mental operations of analysis and synthesis. Comparison is the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena. The comparison is based on analysis. Before comparing objects, it is necessary to identify one or more of their characteristics by which the comparison will be made. The comparison can be one-sided, or incomplete, and multi-sided, or more complete. Comparison, like analysis and synthesis, can be at different levels - superficial and deeper. In this case, a person’s thought goes from external signs of similarity and difference to internal ones, from visible to hidden, from appearance to essence. Abstraction is the process of mental abstraction from certain features and aspects of a particular thing in order to better understand it. A person mentally identifies some feature of an object and examines it in isolation from all other features, temporarily distracting from them. Isolated study of individual features of an object while simultaneously abstracting from all others helps a person to better understand the essence of things and phenomena. Thanks to abstraction, man was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking. Concretization is a process that is the opposite of abstraction and is inextricably linked with it. Concretization is the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content. Mental activity is always aimed at obtaining some result. A person analyzes objects, compares them, abstracts individual properties in order to identify what they have in common, to reveal the patterns that govern their development, in order to master them.
Generalization, therefore, is the identification of the general in objects and phenomena, which is expressed in the form of a concept, law, rule, formula, etc.
Peculiarities of thinking of younger schoolchildren
The current level of development of society and, accordingly, information gleaned from various sources of information, create a need for junior schoolchildren reveal the causes and essence of phenomena, explain them, i.e. think abstractly.
The question of the mental capabilities of a junior schoolchild was resolved in different ways at different times.
As a result of a number of studies, it turned out that the child’s mental capabilities are wider than previously thought, and when conditions are created, that is, with a special methodological organization of training, a junior schoolchild can master abstract theoretical material.
In general, with regard to the concept of “thinking”, several views should be noted.
Firstly, as S.I. Ozhegov’s explanatory dictionary points out, thinking is “a person’s ability to reason, which is the process of reflecting objective reality in ideas, judgments, and concepts.” Let's look at this concept.
A person would know very little about the world around him if his knowledge were limited only to the readings of his analyzers. The possibility of deep and broad knowledge of the world opens up human thinking. There is no need to prove that the figure has four corners, since we see this with the help of an analyzer (vision). But we cannot see, hear, or feel that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs. This kind of concept is indirect.
Thus, thinking is indirect cognition.
Thinking is also the knowledge of relationships and natural connections between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. In order to identify these connections, a person resorts to mental operations - compares, juxtaposes facts, analyzes them, generalizes, draws conclusions.
And, finally, thinking is a generalized cognition of reality, the process of cognition of the general and essential properties of objects and phenomena.
And this process is quite accessible to children. As V.V. Davydov’s research shows, children of primary school age are quite capable of mastering the elements of algebra, for example, establishing relationships between quantities. To identify the relationships between quantities, it turned out to be necessary to model these relationships - to express them in another material form, in which they appear, as it were, in a purified form and become an indicative basis for actions.
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