The category of state (another name is impersonal predicative words) - significant, unchangeable adverbial and nominal words denoting a state. They are used in impersonal sentences as a predicate. This emphasizes their role as a predicate.
Can the category of state be considered part of speech?
The development of the Russian language is leading to the point that they will soon take their rightful place among the significant (independent) parts of speech. In school textbooks back in the mid-20th century, the category of condition was not mentioned at all. Now, in the complex of books by S.I. Lvov and M.M. Razumovskaya, they stand out from the adverb as a special group of words, which differs from them in a number of ways. And in the textbooks of T. A. Ladyzhenskaya and M. T. Baranov, the category of state is completely presented as an independent part of speech, and its morphological analysis is proposed.
An example to understand the status category
An example would be the following sentence: Vladimir will come, we will all have fun. Here's the word funny is used to denote a mental state and is the predicate in the corresponding impersonal sentence. It is combined in it with a bunch will, which is the analytical form of the future tense. Word " funny" impersonal predicative, is a homonym for the short form of an adverb and an adjective. Compare its use in the following sentence: Child's face expression is fun. Here the word is a short adjective. Here's another example: He smiled cheerfully. Here it already acts as an adverb. However, being a category of state, funny differs from an adjective in the absence of gender forms, such as cheerful, cheerful, cheerful. In addition, the name cannot be determined from it. The word comes from an adverb funny distinguished by its inability to determine adjective and verb. Moreover, the meaning of the sign is alien to him.
The general meaning of all impersonal predicative words
All words of the state category have a common meaning - this is an expression of a certain state or its assessment. For example, we can talk about it in relation to living beings, both from a physical and mental point of view; environment and nature; modal coloring. In addition, the assessment of the state can occur from the point of view of extent in space and time, as well as from the moral and ethical point of view. Words belonging to this category are always thought of impersonally. For example: the child is in pain. Compare this sentence with cases where the state is expressed by a verb and an adjective: the child is sick And the child is sick.
Main morphological features
We can distinguish the following morphological features that words of the state category have. Firstly, they lack conjugation and declension, that is, they are unchangeable. Secondly, the category of state as a part of speech is characterized by the presence of the suffix -O if these words are formed from adverbs and adjectives ( necessary, offensive, visible, cold). In addition, they are characterized by the ability to express the meaning of time conveyed by the copula. Various words of the state category are combined with this connective. The following sentences can be made with them: I'll have fun; I had fun; I'll have fun; I felt happy. If there is no connection, we're talking about about the present time. The category of state as a part of speech is characterized by the presence of another morphological feature. It lies in the fact that the words on -O, formed from adverbs and short adjectives, retain forms of comparison. Examples: It was easy - it became easier; It was warm - it became warmer.
Correlations with parts of speech
The correlation of these words with the parts of speech from which they originate is the last morphological feature by which the category of the state is determined. We give the following examples: sad correlates with sad, hard- With heavy,warm- With warm, frosty- With frosty. This sign should also be remembered.
Words denoting a category of state can correlate not only with adverbs, but also with nouns, such as it's time, shame, disgrace, sin. Example: It's time to go where we have long been striving. Coinciding in appearance with groups of nouns and adverbs, they differ from them in that they have categorical meaning, as well as special grammatical properties. For example, unlike adverbs, fun, hard, hot, as state categories, do not define the verb. These words form the grammatical and semantic core of the sentence.
Nevertheless, the sign of correlation with parts of speech is unusual for a number of words in the state category. In modern Russian, for example, ashamed cannot be correlated with conscientious, A Can- With possible. There are other examples.
However, only a small group of words that are included in the state category does not correlate with any part of speech. This must, can, cannot, and also sorry. Currently, the last word has a correlative noun only when it is used in colloquial phrases.
The most important syntactic feature
Let us now move on to a story about the syntactic features of the state category. First of all, these words have the function of a predicate and appear in an impersonal sentence both with and without an infinitive. Example: It was sad and difficult to see her in such a difficult situation.
Lack of management and coordination
The next symptom is that the condition category is not managed and consistent. These words can be combined with a semi-abstract or abstract connective ( do, become, become, be), expressing mood and tense. This is an important sign by which we can recognize that this is a state category. Examples: When I listened to her, I felt sad; I felt awkward and unpleasant.
Other syntactic features
We haven't described everything yet syntactic features. The category of state can be extended by various forms of nouns, as well as pronouns without a preposition in D.p. and with prepositions in pp. and R.p. In other words, these words can control these forms. Examples: I felt sad and annoyed with her; You may be bored with me, but I'm always happy to see you.
It should also be noted that the dependent infinitive is often used with these words. This is also one of the syntactic features by which the category of a state is determined as a part of speech. Example: The snow lay so snow-white that it was painful to look at.
Another syntactic feature is that impersonal predicative words, unlike adjectives and adverbs, do not define any words. Example: She looked sad(here the adverb modifies the verb) - The girl's face was sad(V in this case short adjective defines noun) - The girl was sad
In conclusion
So, impersonal predicative words, otherwise called the state category, are allocated to a separate lexical and grammatical group. They have common semantic, syntactic and morphological features. The main ones are the following: the role of the impersonal predicate, the meaning of the so-called inactive state, immutability, as well as correlation with nouns, adverbs and adjectives. The words of the state category, the sentences with which were presented above, should be distinguished from adverbs, short adjectives and nouns.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WORDS CATEGORIES OF CONDITION
The category of state is a class of significant unchangeable words denoting a state (in the broad sense of the word) and in a sentence performing the function of the main member of impersonal sentences. For example: It’s so good, free, light on the Volga(M.G.); It was damp and stuffy in the jungle(From the gas.)
All words of this part of speech can be divided into groups according to their meaning:
1. Words denoting the state of the environment (warm, cold, damp, hot, noisy, windy etc.). For example: The school building was quiet and deserted(Fad.).
2. Words denoting the physical state of living beings (painful, chilly etc.). For example: She's stuffy, hot, and jumping up, she's trembling(L.).
3. Words denoting human mental states (creepy, embarrassing, scary etc.). For example: But the soul is vast and wonderful, and crowds of silver visions arise in its depths.(G.).
4. Words denoting an assessment of a state (from the volume, size, time, moral and aesthetic side, etc.: beautiful, far, late etc.). For example: I am far from home, and my path ahead is difficult(Pinch.); It's a sin to laugh at old age(Gr.); But we'll see you soon, and now it's time for us to go to sea(P.).
5. Words with modal meaning (it is necessary, it is necessary, it is possible, it is impossible, it is possible, it is impossible etc.). For example: We must first remake life, Having remade it, we can chant(Lighthouse.).
GRAMMATICAL FEATURES OF WORDS OF STATE CATEGORIES
Words of the state category do not change, and only words ending in -o, correlative with adjectives and natural adverbs, can form the form of the comparative degree in a synthetic or analytical way (it became quieter, warmer, more dangerous). The meaning of the superlative degree is expressed only descriptively, by combining the forms of the comparative degree of these words with the words everyone, everything. For example: U he has more fun than everyone else; It was coldest in the open field.
Some words in this group have evaluation forms (cold-new, eerie, scary etc.). For example: The room became a little cold.
As mentioned above, in a sentence the words of state categories are the main members of one-component impersonal constructions. You can also indicate some features of the combination of these words with other words in coherent speech. Thus, words of the state category are combined with linking verbs of an abstract or semi-abstract nature (be, become, become, do etc.), and the copula can have forms of all times (was, will be, currently - zero) indicative mood and subjunctive mood (it would be colder).
With words of the state category there can be a noun, a pronoun in the form of the D. case with the meaning of a logical subject (I'm cold) R. or P. case (It's boring without you; It's dark in the forest), there may be adverbs of place, time, quantity, measure (It’s dark here; It became cold at night; It became very quiet). Words of the state category may be accompanied by an infinitive. For example: You need to study a lot, seriously, honestly(M.G.).
SERVICE PARTS OF SPEECH
Functional parts of speech include prepositions, conjunctions and particles s. They differ from the significant parts of speech primarily in that they do not perform a nominative function, that is, they do not name anything. This is the first feature. Their main role is to express relationships between words or sentences, convey various grammatical meanings or clarify them: Frost and sun!(P.) - union And shows that the words frost, sun are in an equal relationship; You would do the same- particle would together with the form of the verb, it conveys the subjunctive mood.
The second feature of function words is that they cannot be used independently and cannot be members of a sentence.
Finally, it should be noted that function parts of speech are usually unstressed. They form one phonetic word together with the word whose meaning is clarified if these are particles or prepositions. If they connect two independent syntactic units (meaning conjunctions), then they (conjunctions) always adjoin (in terms of stress) the subsequent word.
Stress is retained only by those auxiliary parts of speech that were formed relatively recently from significant parts of speech: thanks, although, despite, because etc.
In their function, auxiliary parts of speech are close to morphemes.
Prepositions
Preposition as part of speech. Prepositions are an auxiliary part of speech that has an abstract lexical meaning and serves to connect a noun with other words in a phrase or sentence, for example: enter the house, the entrance to the museum, not far from the house, my friend and I. Instead of a noun, pronominal nouns can act as a subordinate word (farthest from me), cardinal numbers (add to two), substantivized parts of speech (Love now, love always!(Ascended).
Various relationships can be conveyed using prepositions.
Object relations stand out most clearly (think about a friend, miss your daughter) And various types circumstantial relations:
Temporary (at five o'clock, on Wednesday, in a week, for two days, by Monday, between two and three o'clock);
Spatial (live in a village, be in your homeland, go to your father, leave the factory, go behind a house, walk down the street, cross a bridge);
Causal (not to come due to illness, to meet due to chance, to turn white with fear);
Target (do it for show, do it for glory, prepare for the parade);
Concessive (despite weather conditions, contrary to predictions);
Definitive (motorcycle with a sidecar, striped dress, the size of a watermelon);
Compatibility (talk to brother, go with a friend) etc.
Most prepositions are used with a strictly defined case form and cannot be used with others, for example: preposition To only with D. case; to, from, for, at, for- with R.; at- with P. and others. Some prepositions are used with two cases: for- with V. and T. (behind the house, behind the house, behind the school, behind the school); on, in- with V. and P. (on yard, in the yard, to school, at school).
Rarely does a preposition govern three cases: With- can be used with R., T. and V. cases (take from the table, take with you, the size of an apple); By- with D.; V. and P. cases (walk through the Forest, go mushroom hunting, come in the spring).
Methodological note. Since the preposition is an important means in determining cases, the teacher must clearly know and show this to 4th grade students how a case can be determined using a preposition.
To do this, you need to remember especially well those prepositions that are used only with one or predominantly with one case. For example, only with the R. case are prepositions used without, for, before. from. because of, from under, among, from, at, about, near, near, as well as prepositions during, in continuation. The preposition с cannot be a delimiter of the R. case, since it (the preposition) is also used with the V. and T. cases.
The preposition is used only with the D. case To; we can talk about a preposition By, which is also mainly used with the D. case. Cases of its use with a noun in the P. case (For whom does the bell toll?) extremely rare and not typical for the language of primary schoolchildren.
Prepositions are used only with the V. case about And through. Prepositions V. on, for, with(co), o(about) are used not only with V., but also with other cases. Therefore, it is impossible to determine the case of a noun using these prepositions alone.
The instrumental case does not have a preposition characteristic only of this case. All prepositions used with other cases: with, for, under, between, are also used with the T. case.
The indicator of the P. case is the preposition at.
The preposition is closely connected not only with the dependent word in the word combination, but also with the main word: often, with the help of a preposition, the shades of the meaning of the main word are distinguished, for example: consist of (a substance made up of small particles) And be a member of (be a member of the club).
The main word can determine the meaning of a preposition: come to the library And turn into a library. In the first case, the prelog together with the case form has the meaning of place, in the second - an object meaning. Regardless of the semantic relationships expressed, some words require a certain preposition due to their combinability properties (preface to miss depending on...). However, the Russian language is also characterized by the dependence of the preposition on the formal indicators of the main word, in particular on the verbal prefix: drive into a yard, run over a stone, drive over a fence, drive away from the station, drive off the road etc. Wed, however: cross the road, drive onto the sidewalk etc.
Russian prepositions usually come before a noun (or before an adjective, if the noun has an agreed definition). Very rarely prepositions can be in postposition, for example: contrary to reason, for what reason.
Structure of prepositions. Depending on the structure, all prepositions are divided into primitives (non-derivative) and derivatives (non-primitive).
The group of primitives includes the most ancient prepositions, which, from the point of view of modern language, cannot be associated in origin with any part of speech. The number of such prepositions is small: without (without), in (in), before, for, for, from (iso), to (to), on, over (necessary), about, about (both), from (from), on, under (under ), before (predo), before (before), at, about, with (with), at, through (through).
Prepositions because of, from under, over, over formed by adding two simple prepositions and are called double or compound.
Derivative prepositions have motivated relationships with nouns, adverbs and gerunds.
Based on the nature of their correlation, they can be divided into several groups:
Named: during, in continuation, as, in the course of, for the purposes of etc.;
Adverbial: near, along, towards, opposite, nearby; verbal: thanks, including, after.
In a number of cases in modern language These words act both as a preposition and as significant words: I looked around - everything was white and white. - A crowd gathered around me; He left thanking us for the night. “Thanks to his discipline, he managed to finish his dissertation ahead of schedule.
Methodological note. To distinguish the significant part of speech from a preposition, you need to select synonyms for them: We were warned the day before(= just, recently - adverb). — We were warned on the eve of the exam(= before the exam - preposition); During the war I worked at a factory(= to war - pretext). — The plant has achieved success recently(= in the last period - noun). — He returned a week later(= through - preposition).
Based on their morphological composition, derived prepositions are divided into simple ones, consisting of one word, for example: around, about, thanks to, as a result of, and compounds, consisting of the case form of a noun preceded by a primitive preposition: during, in continuation, except for, in the course of, along the way, during. Recently, complex prepositions have begun to develop more and more actively, representing the combination of the case form of a noun with the preceding and subsequent simple primitive prepositions: in connection with, depending on, on the way to, towards, compare: We went towards the forest. - We went towards the forest.
Complex prepositions are characteristic of official business, scientific and journalistic styles, although recently they have begun to penetrate into colloquial speech, creating undesirable shades of clericalism: in the matter of spreading the Russian language etc. Primary prepositions mostly have a neutral stylistic connotation. Only some of them have a touch of sublimity: among, through, before, before. Some primitive prepositions have a connotation of colloquialism: a film about love, let's go pick some berries for the sake of the children.
Methodological note. Primary school students become familiar with primitive prepositions already during the period of learning to read and write. By calling prepositions “small words,” the teacher draws the children’s attention to the fact that these words are written separately from other words. This skill is developed through practical means in 2nd grade (according to the 1-4 system). In the 3rd grade, when studying prefixes, the teacher compares prepositions and prefixes, again drawing the children's attention to the fact that prepositions are written separately and never come before verbs. Then, when learning a noun, children learn with which cases prepositions are used. Particular attention is paid to developing this skill in the 4th grade, when the spelling of case endings of nouns is studied and it is required to determine the case of a noun based on a number of features, including prepositions.
In addition, the correct use of prepositions is an integral part of the culture of speech. Therefore, the teacher must carefully monitor the correct use of prepositional case constructions. Already in the first grades, you should pay attention to the use of prepositions from and with in constructions like from Moscow, from Ukraine, from the post office, from the hospital, from school etc. In addition, the teacher needs to get students to correctly use prepositions with a noun with a verb miss. You should say: miss your mom, miss your brother, but not *miss(!) mom.
Unions
Conjunctions are an auxiliary part of speech that serves to connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence, or to connect individual sentences in a text.
A messenger rides with a letter and finally arrives(P.); The door creaked quietly, and the king entered the room, the sovereign of that side(P.); Our shelter is small, but calm(L.); Before our melancholy sang songs, but now our joy sings(L.-Kum.).
Based on their origin and word-formation structure, conjunctions are divided into primitive and derivative. Antiderivatives arose a long time ago, and their meaning in modern language is not motivated. These are unions such as: a, but, yes, or, nor, but, yes mitd.
Derivative unions appeared later. Most of them were formed from pronouns, adverbs or from prepositional-pronominal, adverbial and other combinations: before; Although; contrary to; thanks to the fact that; until; due to the fact that; to; Where; What; How etc. In modern language, the process of forming conjunctions continues. New conjunctions are formed by adding specific words to existing conjunctions, for example: and therefore, and therefore, and then, and thereby, and therefore, and moreover, due to the fact that etc.
According to their morphological composition, conjunctions are divided into simple ones, consisting of one word, and compound ones, which are a combination of two or more verbal elements. Examples of simple conjunctions: a, but, and, for, so that, although etc. Compound conjunctions: since, because, while etc. Among the compound unions, a group of double unions stands out: not only... but also, because... to the extent, than... the etc. The components of compound conjunctions can follow each other without allowing any inclusion between them, and can be dismembered in other words, as in double conjunctions not only... but also, not so much... as.
In compound conjunctions, the pronominal element can be highlighted by logical stress. In this case, a pause separates the conjunction, which is indicated in writing by a comma, which is placed after the pronominal part: thanks to the fact that; because; due to the fact that; due to the fact that etc. Compare: Apparently, this thought repeatedly occupied the captain, because he repeatedly returned to it in the margins of other books(Kav.); I loved my trips because I was alone(Paust.).
It is necessary to distinguish from double conjunctions repeating conjunctions, which make up the second group, for example: then... that, not that... not that, or... or, and... and, neither... nor etc.
According to the nature of the syntactic relations that establish unions between connected components, unions are divided into coordinating and subordinating.
Coordinating conjunctions combine components on the basis of their equality, without indicating the dependence of one on the other. They combine either homogeneous members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence.
Subordinating conjunctions combine unequal components and indicate the dependence of one of them on the other. Subordinating conjunctions are typical for complex sentences, where the component they add (subjective clause) depends on the main part and explains it. In rare cases, subordinating conjunctions occur in a simple sentence. This is a union Although, which can attach homogeneous members: The weather is warm, although windy, and comparative conjunctions introducing comparative phrases, or standing before the predicate: The day is warmer than the night; The forest stands like in a fairy tale. Union How can be used in simple sentence in the meaning of “as” when it appears in the application, for example: Conversation as a means of education junior schoolchildren widely used by teachers.
Grammatical meanings and relationships in each of these groups depend on the quality of the specific conjunction and the content of the connected components. So, connecting conjunctions and, yes, neither... nor can express connecting relations, i.e. those in which two or more homogeneous components are combined: It's late in the evening, in winter, and there's a bitter frost(N.); The naughty Monkey, the Donkey, the Goat and the club-footed Bear...(Kr) Such conjunctions are called coordinating connectives.
Separative relations are expressed using coordinating disjunctive conjunctions or... or, either... or, not that... not that, that... that, either... or. These unions show that the components they connect either alternate or are mutually exclusive: What is driving you? Is it deprivation of fate, or secret envy? Is it open anger?(L.) Coordinating adversative conjunctions ah, but, yes(meaning But) show that the parts being connected are contrasted or compared: Soon the fairy tale will tell, but not soon the deed will be done(Ate.).
Graduation unions not only... but also, not so much... as, not really... ah, connecting the components, the last one is highlighted, indicating its special importance. For example: It is necessary to take into account not only the number of errors, but also their nature.
Subordinating conjunctions also express various dependency relationships:
Temporary: when, as soon as, until, since, until etc.;
Causal: since, because, for etc.;
Conditional: if, if, once;
Target: so that, in order to, if only;
Concessive: although, despite the fact that;
Consequences: as a result of which, so;
Comparative: as, as if, as if, exactly, as if, just like etc.;
Explanatory: what, how etc.
Some conjunctions can combine the meanings of coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, for example: Although the eye can see, the tooth is numb. Here is the union at least... yes has an adversarial concessive meaning. Conjunctions, like other words, can have multiple meanings, for example union When can express temporary relationships and conditional ones. Wed: When Boris doesn't stop being cunning, let's skillfully excite people(P.) - union When used in a conditional meaning; When the roll call passed through the trenches, When we were having a conversation over tea, A tufted, gray bird fluttered Above the edge of a no man's, wild land(Marmot.) - union When time matters.
Like words of other parts of speech, conjunctions have a stylistic connotation. Many conjunctions are stylistically neutral, for example: if, when, what, how, or, and, but. Some conjunctions are characteristic only of oral speech, including literary colloquial speech: since soon, since, once, good. Many compound conjunctions belong to book speech, and equally to all its varieties: due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, despite the fact that etc.
Methodological note. In the elementary grades there is no special topic “Conjunctions,” but almost already in the very beginning period of education, children become familiar with conjunctions a, and, but. Like prepositions, they are called "little words." It is important already during this period to draw the attention of children to the fact that conjunctions are written separately from other words and before ah, but there is always a comma. In 2nd grade during Russian language lessons, especially when performing creative works, children widely use complex sentences with conjunctions when, if, because, what.
Here you can propaedeutic tell students that these words should be preceded by a comma. A more detailed introduction to coordinating conjunctions is carried out in the 4th grade (according to the 1-4 system) when studying homogeneous members of a sentence. Students are informed that homogeneous members of a sentence can be connected by words a, and, but, or. Here it is important to draw children’s attention to the difference in intonation before these conjunctions (purely practically) and reinforce the skill of placing a comma before conjunctions a, but. You can draw children's attention to the fact that before a single union And There is no comma, but when repeated it is required.
Particles
Particles are a part of speech that includes unchangeable non-nominal words that serve to express the semantic, emotional and modal-volitional shades of words, phrases and sentences. Wed: I did the work.—I almost did the work; He started working. - He just started working. In these sentences, particles show the degree of completion of the action, i.e. they clarify the meaning of the verbs done, started. Wed. more: I'll come tomorrow. - I'm unlikely to come tomorrow. Particle unlikely shows that the validity of the action is questioned. Wed. more: Aren't you coming with us? And Won't you come with us?
Here the particles (highlighted), forming, together with intonation, the interrogative modality of the sentence, at the same time express doubt, surprise, and distrust of the speaker. With the help of particles can be transmitted different meanings: statement (yes, that's right) negation (no, no, no) doubt (really, really) uncertainty (hardly, hardly) allocation (exactly, directly), limitation (only, only, only) and other meanings.
According to their meaning and function, all particles are divided into the following categories:
1. Particles expressing semantic shades of words. These include: a) defining particles: barely (barely spoke), exactly, exactly, almost (almost red), almost (almost fell) etc.; b) particles that serve to distinguish an object, attribute, action from a number of others or enhance the meaning of the object, attribute, action. These particles are called excretory-restrictive. These include particles: only, even, still, at least, at least, only, only, only. For example: I don’t even want to wish you goodnight(G.). Here is a particle And, synonymous even, strengthens the object of action. Wed. more: That's what he said; He said exactly that; He just said it, not wrote it. In these sentences the particle exactly highlights the word it precedes.
2. Emotionally expressive particles. These particles express the emotional-expressive attitude of the speaker to what is being expressed: What a delight these tales are!(P.); It’s so clear, in order to start living in the present, we must first atone for our past, put an end to it...(Ch.); How good you are, O night sea!(Tutch.) These include particles: after all, well, that’s it, it would be, just, like that, where as etc.
3. Modal and modal-volitional particles. This group of particles expresses the relationship of what is being said to reality, i.e. they convey an affirmation or negation, a question or motivation, show the reliability of what is being said, comparison, etc.: Is it really the same Tatyana?(P.); Can you really tell me about this? What years did you live in?(Isak); Aren't you ashamed of the walls?(Kr.) Modal-volitional particles include the following particles: yes, no, really, hardly, hardly, let, let, perhaps, really, as if, perhaps etc. This also includes particles denoting the subjective transmission of someone else’s speech: they say.
4. A special group of particles consists of shape-forming particles. They serve to form forms of verb moods, to form forms of degrees of comparison, for example: the most interesting, more beautiful, he would say, let him say. These particles are close in meaning and function to formative affixes. As for word-forming particles -th, -either, -yet, -ka, somehow-, identified by some researchers in the category of particles, then they (particles) should be considered as a special type of word-forming affixes.
The proposed classification of particles cannot cover all their meanings, since the meanings of some particles are specified in the sentence. In addition, many particles have close connections with words from other parts of speech. They contain elements of the meanings of adverbs to varying degrees (literally, completely, directly), pronouns (everything, everything, it, this), verbs (it was, look) unions (and, fortunately, even, even, let, even so), prepositions (like). There is often a combination of the meanings of a particle and a conjunction, a particle and an adverb. In this case, they must be qualified in two ways: conjunction - particle, particle - adverb, etc. (For more information about this, see the section “Homonymous Parts of Speech.”)
All particles, except formative ones, are characteristic of colloquial speech and are widely found in fiction. They are not characteristic of official business and scientific styles of speech.
Methodological note. In the elementary grades, attention to modal-volitional particles helps the teacher show the specifics of interrogative and exclamatory sentences and give certain recommendations to students for expressive reading.
Modal words
General characteristics modal words. Modality is a conceptual and grammatical category that expresses the speaker’s attitude to the utterance, the attitude of the utterance to objective reality.
Modality is expressed by various means: lexical, morphological and syntactic. For example, different significant words can have a modal meaning (want, be able, assume, assert, true, false etc.). These are lexical means of expressing modality.
The meanings of modality are expressed by forms of verb moods, i.e. morphologically.
Different modal meanings are inherent in different types of sentences: narrative, incentive (functional modality), interrogative, affirmative and negative, i.e. this is a syntactic expression of modality.
There is another type of modality - subjective modality, which is expressed in special modal words. Modal words are a class of unchangeable words with the help of which the speaker’s subjective attitude to the statement or part of it is expressed in terms of its reliability / unreliability. For example: You may have heard - we are leaving(I.T.) - combination May be conveys the meaning of conjecture; “Decidedly - he’s lovely,” she said, either thoughtfully or absent-mindedly(I.T.) - word decisively expresses the meaning of confidence in what is being communicated in the sentence.
Modal words in a sentence are not grammatically related to its other members and are not members of the sentence. Most often, they act as introductory words, standing out in the text with intonation (in writing - with punctuation marks). For example: Your library has certainly grown since then?(Sol.) In addition, modal words can act as sentence words in the response line of the dialogue. For example: “No, are you serious?” - she asked, gradually realizing the incongruity of the unexpected event. - "Certainly"(Ant.).
Modal words are formed from significant words and often have homonyms among them. For example: Troekurov ordered to immediately catch up with him and turn him back without fail.(P.). In this sentence the word certainly is an adverb, refers to a predicate verb and is not distinguished by either intonation or commas. Of course, he will return. In this sentence the word certainly- modal, meaning the speaker’s confidence. Or: He copied the drawing exactly. “He’s definitely copying the drawing.”
Classifications of modal words by meaning. According to the meaning that modal words give to a statement or its individual parts, they are divided into several groups. The main ones are the following.
1. Modal words expressing confidence, reliability (of course, undoubtedly, naturally, definitely, certainly, truly, really etc.); combinations (in fact, it goes without saying, it goes without saying etc.). For example: In fact: take it and leave it!(Kav.)
2. Modal words expressing the meaning of conjecture, uncertainty (seems, probably, apparently, hardly, maybe etc.); combinations (in all likelihood, in all likelihood etc.). For example: Maybe you were right(I.T.); Apparently the moment has come(Kav.).
Interjections
Interjection as a part of speech. Interjections are a class of unchangeable words that serve to express various feelings and volitional impulses of a person (oh, ah! well! etc.).
In the system of parts of speech, interjections occupy a special place. Interjections differ from function words in that they do not connect members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence, like conjunctions; do not express the relationships of nouns and pronouns to other words in a sentence, like prepositions; do not attach semantic, modal and expressive meanings to words or sentences, like particles.
Interjections differ from significant parts of speech in that, while expressing feelings and motives, they do not name them. For example: Oh, quickly my youth flashed like a falling star(P.). In this sentence the interjection Oh expresses a feeling of regret, but does not name it, unlike words I'm sorry, I'm sorry and etc. Or: Oh my God, perch! Ah, ah... hurry up!(Ch.) In this sentence the interjection combination My God and interjection Oh express a feeling of delight. Many interjections can serve to express different feelings.
So, for example, in the works of A. S. Pushkin, the interjection Oh used to express feelings of surprise, guesswork, joy, distrust, etc.: Ah!.., wait; what a wonderful thought...(expresses a feeling of joy); Oh, mother is coming...(expresses a feeling of fear); Oh, he's a lieutenant! ah, villain!(expresses a feeling of indignation). Interjection A also expresses various feelings. For example: A! So you are obedient to my will!(the interjection expresses a feeling of displeasure); "A! Pyotr Andreich! - he said when he saw me...(expresses a feeling of joyful surprise).
Some interjections, despite the fact that they do not have a nominative function, nevertheless have a content assigned to them. For example, interjection Alas serves to express feelings of grief, regret; interjection guard expresses a call for assistance, etc.
In a sentence, interjections are not syntactically related to its members. They can act as an independent interjection sentence. For example: “Fathers! - the thin one was amazed. - Misha! Childhood friend!(Ch.) Some interjections can act as a predicate. For example: Tatiana ah! and he roars(P.).
In speech, interjections are pronounced with a special intonation (raising the tone, increasing the strength of the sound, in some cases - the length of the vowels).
Interjection categories. Based on what interjections express, they are usually divided into two groups: emotional and motivating (imperative).
Emotional Interjections ABOUT! Oh! Oh! Hooray! Bravo! Fathers! A! Wow! and others express feelings of joy, delight, approval, surprise, bewilderment, fear, and also give a description, assessment of events, states, etc. For example: Oh! Skalozub, my soul...(Gr.) - interjection serves to express feelings of joy, delight; Oh! My God! What will Princess Marya Aleksevna say?(Gr.) - interjections express fear.
Incentive interjections express various types of incentives: Out! Tsits! Well! Ssss! Shh! March! Come on!
For example: Grinev, having learned from him about the danger... commanded: march, march...(P.); Where, Ostap, is your sniffle? Come on, Cossack girl!(G.) Interjections calling for attention: Aw! Hey! Hello! For example: “Hey, Dunya! - the caretaker shouted, “put on the samovar.”(P.); Dasha silently watched as her father twisted the phone handle and shouted: “Hello, hello!”(Hump.)
Interjections also include speech formulas of politeness, i.e. words and combinations expressing greeting, farewell, gratitude, etc.: Hello! Thank you! Goodbye! etc.
According to their structure, interjections are divided into non-derivative and derivative. The first include interjections like ah, oh, ah, eh, well, wow etc. They consist of one vowel sound: A! eh!\ of two vowels ow!; from a vowel and a consonant: Oh! eh! bah!; of two vowels and a consonant: yeah! Wow! Alas!; from consonants: Brr! Some of the listed interjections can appear in double or triple form: wow! hehehehe! Some of these interjections can be combined with particles (come on! come on!) or with a verb postfix (Come on!).
Derivative interjections correlate with words of other parts of speech: verbs (Look! Hello! Sorry), nouns (Fathers! Trouble! Horror!), pronouns (That's it!) adverbs (Complete!): Derivative interjections can be compound: So much for you! That's the thing!
State category word - is an independent part of speech that denotes the state of living beings, nature, the environment and answers questions How? what?State category words- a relatively young part of speech. In some textbooks state category words are considered as a special group of adverbs - adverbs of state.
State category words can be distinguished by the following characteristics: 1) general grammatical meaning (state); 2) morphemic features: most state category words has the suffix -o; 3) syntactic function: predicate in an impersonal sentence. According to its morphological characteristics state category words come close to adverbs, for example: I feel bad(state category word). - He doesn't read well(adverb). He's sad(state category word), - The old man smiled sadly(adverb).
State category words on -o, formed from qualitative adjectives, can form forms of degrees of comparison, for example: My soul became sadder and sadder (A. Kuprin).
Boring, scary, freezes
Everything around
(F. Sologub)
The clear streets empty,
So dead.
(F. Sologub)
By origin state category words can be divided into three category: 1) words starting with -o, correlated with adverbs and short forms of adjectives (fresh, pleasant, cool, stuffy, sultry); 2) words etymologically related to nouns (it's time, time, sin, shame, hunting); 3) words that do not find matches in other parts of speech of the modern Russian language (necessary, possible, impossible).
Distinguishing between words of the state category and homonymous parts of speech
The same differences are characteristic of the forms of the simple comparative degree of the indicated parts of speech. The comparative degree of an adjective in a sentence is usually the nominal part of the predicate and explains the attribute of the subject, for example: He was small, But became taller. Comparative degree state category words is the nominal part of the predicate in an impersonal sentence: Everyone it became more fun. The comparative degree of an adverb serves as a circumstance and refers to the predicate verb, for example: He did a lot, but no more than the rest.
State category words should also be distinguished from homonymous nouns, for example: Well, to me it's time. - It was vague it's time when young Russia matured with the genius of Peter... (A. Pushkin). Used in the first sentence state category word(the indicator is the function of the predicate in an impersonal sentence), in the second - the noun (the indicator is the function of the subject in a two-part sentence).
Morphological analysis of the state category word includes the identification of two constant features (rank by value and the presence of forms of degrees of comparison). The word of the state category does not have any unstable characteristics, since it is an unchangeable word.
AS AN INDEPENDENT PART OF SPEECH
IN MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
Plan
1. History of the development of the question of the category of state in Russian linguistics.
2.1.Groups of impersonal predicative words by meaning.
2.2. Morphological characteristics of the condition category.
2.3. Syntactic features of the state category.
3. Formation of impersonal predicative words and methods of distinguishing grammatical homonyms.
1. History of the development of the question of the category of state in Russian linguistics. As part of the significant parts of speech of the Russian language, a group of words is distinguished, heterogeneous in correlation with other parts of speech, which act as a predicate of a one-part impersonal sentence: stuffy, cold, possible, impossible, time, hunting, sorry, sin and many more etc.
There are several terms to designate it in morphology. The most widespread in scientific and university grammars is the term academician. L.V. Shcherby "state category" which indicates the semantics of words of this lexico-grammatical category.
Another term is impersonal predicative words– was introduced into scientific use by Prof. S.I. Abakumov, who precisely denotes the syntactic function of these words. Both terms are used in modern linguistic literature.
Sometimes the term is used predicates, which, however, has too broad a meaning, because A predicate is usually called a predicate, and all significant words can be used as a predicate.
Judging by the discrepancy in terminology, the question of the category of state in linguistics has not been finally resolved. Some scientists, following academician. L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov (these are Prof. N.S. Pospelov, E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, V.V. Babaytseva and others, including the authors of all university textbooks) consider words of the state category independent part of speech.
Other scientists question the independent existence of this part of speech and include such words as part of adverbs(Prof. A.B. Shapiro, V.N. Migirin, AG-52, AG-70, etc.). The variety of means of expressing these words and unclear morphological features serve as the basis for denying the independence of the state category. Scientists who do not recognize state category words as an independent part of speech usually call them predicative adverbs. This approach, in particular, is reflected in current Belarusian school textbooks.
However, even having recognized the independence of the category of state, supporters of this point of view differ in determining the scope of this part of speech. Yes, academician Shcherba includes a very diverse range of words in the category of condition, and prof. Galkina-Fedoruk significantly limits its scope.
Separate impersonal predicative words with the form of nouns, adjectives and adverbs in -O attracted the attention of linguists back in the first half of the 19th century. Already N. Koshansky, A.Kh. Vostokov, F.I. Buslaev et al. understood that words like sorry, laziness, (not) good, ashamed, ashamed etc., cannot be classified either as nouns, or short adjectives, or adverbs. Feeling the specificity of their lexical meaning, as well as taking into account their invariability in cases, their inherent meaning of tense and use exclusively or predominantly as a predicate, linguists usually classified them as a verb. For example, N. Koshansky’s words sorry, pitiful, ashamed, ashamed classified as impersonal verbs. OH. Vostokov in his “Russian Grammar” added short adjectives that do not have corresponding full adjectives to the category of verb - glad, ready, eager. F.I. Buslaev, despite the fact that he did not support Vostokov’s point of view in many respects, words such as sorry, lazy also considered impersonal verbs.
Academician A.A. Shakhmatov on turn of the nineteenth– 20th century forms I felt sorry, I felt worse, I felt ashamed etc. considered conjugated and called predicative adverbs.
For the first time, the question of the category of state as a special part of speech was raised by L. V. Shcherba in his work “On parts of speech in the Russian language” in 1928. He noted that words such as it’s impossible, it’s possible, it’s time, it’s a pity, it’s cold, it’s light, it’s fun etc., “are used with a copula and function as a predicate of impersonal sentences,” showed their difference from adverbs and adjectives. Since these words serve to express a state, which, however, differs “from the same state, but represented as an action” (cf.: it's getting cold– getting cold, frosty– freezes etc.), L.V. Shcherba suggested calling them “state category”. As their formal features, he noted immutability and use with a copula. In the state category he included such combinations as to be tipsy, to be married, to be alert, to be unconscious etc.
He described the category of the condition in detail and without hesitation singled it out as an independent part of speech by Academician. V.V. Vinogradov. He clarified the composition of impersonal predicative words, limiting them to indeclinable nominal and adverbial words acting as a predicate.
Subsequently, the category of state was developed in the works of N.S. Pospelova, E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk, V.V. Babaytseva and others. Work in this direction by prof. E.M. Galkina-Fedoruk led to the fact that the state category began to include only those words that fulfill function of the predicate in impersonal sentences. Therefore, some short adjectives like glad, must, agree etc., as well as nouns not a fool, not a mistake, which are used as a predicate in personal two-part sentences.
Subsequently, this point of view became most widespread, so we will dwell on it.
So, in the morphological system of the modern Russian language, the category of state occupies specific place, following the adverb.
The category of state, or impersonal predicative words, are significant, unchangeable words that denote the state as a general grammatical meaning. They are combined with a verb link and are used as a predicate of an impersonal sentence. For example: Shurke it was awkward: he understood that he did wrong(Stanyukovich). Prokhor it became painful And scary (Shishkov). – How are you doing here? wonderful! Like a nun! - he said(Andreev). Examples show that the words of this part of speech are syncretic, possessing the characteristics of a verb and an adverb: verbal properties are expressed in the form of a connective, and the properties of an adverb are manifested in invariability in gender, number and case, in the presence of degrees of comparison in words of the state category - O, in the possibility of forming derivative words with suffixes of subjective evaluation.
State category words answer questions what? what was it like?, what will it be like? At the same time the word what? has a constant unit shape. numbers, cf. kind, i.e. does not change in gender and number, unlike a pronoun - a short adjective what, what, what, what are. A question is used in colloquial speech How? Wed: 1. – What was it like in the forests? - Stuffy, creepy, unbearable. 2. – What was it like in the forests? - Stuffy, creepy, unbearable.
2. 1. Groups of impersonal predicative words by meaning. All words in the category of state have a common semantic feature - state. It is heterogeneous, and depending on what state they express, the words of the state category are divided into the following groups.
1. Words denoting the state of the environment, situation: dark, hot, empty, damp, white etc. Was stuffy, hot, noisy. It smelled like borscht and burnt butter.(Konovalov). WITH morning it was windy (A.N. Tolstoy). Quiet in the hut(Shishkov).
Words of this group are usually combined only with adverbial words, rarely with a gender complement. case, but with them there cannot be a dative case denoting the subject. For example: There was motley And noisy from the people(A.N. Tolstoy). U me in the winter in the hut damp, cold (Nikitin). In the presence of a dative subject, these words denote the state not of the environment, but of the subject, even if the sentence contains adverbial words, for example: to me It's stuffy here , to him it's good here them it's fun there.
2. Words expressing the physical state of living beings: sick, painful, chilly, bitter, cold, sick, ticklish etc. For example: To the chick it became warm, and he chirped cheerfully. Only part of the organism of a living being can be in one state or another: Cheeks it was hot (Shishkov). It became hot heart(A.N. Tolstoy).
3. Words expressing a person’s state of mind. For example: Prokhor became creepy. He felt it's a shame, bitter (Shishkov). He was uncomfortable And ashamed (A.N. Tolstoy). Him and Nice, And creepy, and at the same time annoying... (Stanyukovich). IN figurative meaning the state of mind can be expressed by many words of the first and second groups. Examples: Misha, don't you scared live like this? Cloudy on the soul, right?(Konovalov). Bitterly me with you...(Shishkov).
4. Words expressing the state of temporal and spatial relations: far, close, deep, high, long, wide, narrow etc. For example: Ivan Afanasyevich before us far became(I. Shmelev). Not yet late, something needs to be done(V. Kataev).
5. Words expressing a negative or positive assessment of any state or action. For example: - Right, Rybin! – That's right, fireman!(Bitter). Idyll,” he said. - They sing and dream to the moon! Lovely, I swear to God!(Chekhov).
Words in this group include words like seen, heard etc. They usually express an assessment of the state of the environment in terms of auditory and visual perception of objects: nothing here not visible; the path is barely noticeable; audible rooster crow.
6. Words of the category of state, having modal meanings of necessity, obligation, possibility: it is necessary, it is necessary, it must, it is necessary, it is possible, it is impossible, it is possible (impossible) it. etc. For example: Can you - come in it is forbidden - nothing to do(Dostoevsky). If you necessary go to your places alone(Bazhov).
7. Words of the category of state with the modal meaning of the manifestation of something to a sufficient extent, according to the speaker’s definition, and also denoting the need to stop the action: enough, enough, full, enough, will be. For example: Will Yasha, it breaks your heart(Bitter). No, Pinchuk does not want the collective farmers in his village to live under thatched roofs. Enough!(Alekseev). – That's it! – he said in a thick voice. – Enough chatter. Let's get to it, guys.(A.N. Tolstoy).
8. Type state category words cover, kayuk, kaput, cross, end etc., homonymous with interjections. Unlike interjections, these words, firstly, are grammatically related to other words: they control the dative case of the subject (he's screwed, you're screwed), combined with adverbial words denoting place, time (tomorrow he’s dead, here’s his boat); secondly, they all denote the state of someone (something), which, as it were, decides its fate. For example: And the thief Fedenka, her tormentor, – cross... (Shishkov). Everything end (Nekrasov). The heart refuses to work. Kaput old man(Neverov). Some of these words, e.g. kayuk, kaput, are used only as a predicate in impersonal sentences.
Some polysemantic impersonal predicative words can be included in several groups. Yes, words hot, dark and others are included in the 1st and 3rd groups. Wed: Senka Kozyryu hot it happened(Shishkov) AndIt happened in the shack hot (Shishkov). Words good, bad, the most abstract of the words of the state category can be included in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th groups. Wed: Fine in the forest in winter. –Fine to me, warm. – Fine on the soul. – Fine, that you have come.
Thus, based on semantics, all words of the category of state can be combined into groups: 1) qualitative impersonal predicative words denoting the state of living beings and the environment and 2) modal impersonal predicative words that express a modal assessment of the state of the subject.
In the morphology textbook of Prof. L.D. Chesnokova and V.S. Pechnikova / ed. E.I. Dibrova (Part 2. - R-n-D, 1997. - P. 200–201) identifies another group of words of pronominal origin like what is it, what is it, no time, nowhere, no place, no need etc., which they classify as a state because, in combination with the infinitive dependent on these words, they express the meaning of a specific state, for example: no time to rest(employment status), there's no need to rush(state of aimlessness), nowhere to live(state of homelessness), from Lermontov: AND no one to give a hand to in a moment of spiritual adversity(state of loneliness). The basis for such qualification of the listed words, in addition to the meaning of the state, is their independence and the impossibility of forming verbal phrases, unlike pronouns why, what, where, when etc., which form verbal combinations with any form of the verb. Wed: nothing to learn And what am I learning, what are you learning etc.
In conclusion, let’s talk about the peculiarities of the use of impersonal predicative words in speech, which are determined by their semantic and grammatical features. They are appropriate and necessary in texts of a descriptive nature in the absence of an active subject, when the general state of something (someone) is conveyed, or in the overall picture it is necessary to indicate a certain state, emphasizing it as a significant detail. For example:
1. Already like autumn it was empty and lonely in the fields. Crested larks dozed lonelyly on the hummocks. There was a sluggish and tart smell of potato tops, and a bitter whiff of smoke from somewhere. (Boon.)
2. The moon showered me with light, and, raising my eyes upward, I looked into its face for a long time. The light, passing through the whitish lace of the curtains, softened the darkness in the depths of the room. From here months wasn't visible, but all four windows were brightly lit. The light fell from the windows in pale silver arches, and in each of them there was a smoky shadow cross, softly breaking across the illuminated armchairs and chairs. (Boon.)
In dialogic speech, impersonal predicative words with modal evaluation are common. For example: 1. - I see it for the first time in my life! How nice! – said von Koren, appearing in the clearing and stretching out both hands to the east. - Look: green rays! (Ch.) 2. “Strange...” thought the deacon, not recognizing Laevsky’s gait. “Like an old man” (Ch.).
Historical background
Selection problem state category words How separate part of speech does not have a clear solution. Some researchers said that such words are similar to names nouns And adverbs, others suggested words to -O(type fun, chilly) attributed to impersonal verbs(L. X. Vostokov, F. I. Buslaev, etc.). L. V. Shcherba was the first linguist to introduce the term “state category words”, identify this class of words as an independent part of speech and name their main features: semantic – state, syntactic – predicate, morphological – immutability In the category of words of the state category, Shcherba included three groups of formations: 1) unchangeable words (bad, sickening etc.); 2) words that are considered short adjectives (glad, intends, sad etc.) and change according to gender and number; 3) nouns with prepositions (no memory, no feelings etc.). Prepositional case forms can also act as adverbials (fell unconscious etc.).
The theory of L.V. Shcherba was continued by V.V. Vinogradov. He claimed that condition category- This part of speech; spoke about correlation with different parts of speech: some of the words came from nouns (it’s time, reluctance); part - from short adjectives neuter and adverbs on -o (his face is cheerful, he speaks cheerfully, he is having fun). Words of the state category were understood by scientists wide; words to -o (impersonal predicative adverbs – possible, difficult etc.); forms short: adjectives, which have lost their relevance to full forms (glad, willing, intends, must etc. - they always act as predicate); short passive participles in impersonal use (smoky, ventilated etc.); adverbial phraseological units(some adverbs in the role predicate two-part sentence - crazy, out of sorts, out of sorts, married, tipsy etc.); nouns based on state category words (sin, fear, laughter, shame, time, time etc.).
V.V. Vinogradov justified half-speech status words of the state category in that this heterogeneous part of speech is united grammatical category – analytical form of time, adding to my theory impersonal syntactic usage. Groups nouns in combined with infinitive act as modal-expressive components, compare: sin, shame, disgrace, laughter, fear, horror, horror, torment etc. (moral and ethical meaning); it's time, time(meaning obligation).
State category words– is an independent part of speech, including significant unchangeable personalized And adverbial words with lexico-grammatical meaning state or his grades, capable of being combined with a ligament ( abstract or semi-distracted), most often used in functions predicate an impersonal sentence (in combination with or without an infinitive) or a two-part sentence with a subject expressed by an infinitive. These include words expressing:
- – mental and physical state of living beings;
- – state of nature, environment;
- – state with modal coloring;
- – assessment of the state in terms of extent in time and space.
State is thought impersonally(cf.: child hurt (to me hurt),child sick,child sick).
Modern scientists are of the opinion that syntactic function(consisting of impersonal predicate), as well as the emotional-evaluative and modal-expressive semantics of words of the state category “cannot be considered a sufficient argument for “excommunicating” these words (and many similar ones!) from the category of a noun”, since the tense form of the impersonal connective (was, will be and zero connective) belongs everything predicate. In such words, the connotation of “objectivity” is not completely lost, and sometimes even intensified or emphasized by a consistent indicator of gradualism that arose as a result of intensification - the particle how, which, most. For example: What a shame and disgrace; What a horror; It's time to part ways; What a pity it was to leave(word sorry only compatible with How) .
To the "special" part of speech condition category highlight I. I. Meshchaninov, A. V. Isachenko, II. S. Pospelov, E. M. Galkina-Fedoruk, V. V. Babaytseva, G. A. Zolotova, P. A. Lskant and others. Among those who recognize words of the state category "special" part of speech, there is no consensus on its name. The following names for this part of speech are used: predicative adverbs(this term can be considered less successful, since adverbs and predicate functions are not correlated) and state category words , impersonal predicative words And condition category, predicates, status words And state names , rating category And evaluation predicates .
There is no consensus on the vocabulary of this category of words. In 1969, V. M. Panfilov published the “Dictionary of predicates (words of the category of state) in the Russian language,” where an attempt was made to compile a dictionary state category words How one of the parts of speech. The dictionary included the most commonly used predicates(there are more than 700 of them).
A clear opinion regarding the composition of this part of speech and its name has not been formed even today. For example, in academic
Grammar (1980 (2005)) words of the state category are not identified as an independent part of speech, and some modern school textbooks either consider the “state category” as a part of speech or do not consider it at all.
- 1) lack of declension and conjugation ( immutable words);
- 2) the presence of a suffix -O in words formed from adjectives and adverbs (coldO, hungryO, frostyO, offensiveO);
- 3) ability to express meaning time And moods(from the linking verb with which words of the state category are combined (wouldl-oh sad, bud-no sad, hundredl-oh it's cold, stan-no Cold));
- 4) saving forms of degrees of comparison words have state categories on -O, formed from short names of adjectives and adverbs (it was cold (it hurt) – it will get coldher (sickher));
- 5) the ability of words of the state category to correlate with those parts of speech from which they originated (sad – sad, sick – hurt). This feature is not characteristic of all words in the state category, for example the word ashamed does not correlate with an adjective in modern Russian conscientious, you can- With possible.
Words have state categories that are most clearly defined syntactic signs – predicate V impersonal sentence (in combination with or without an infinitive - It was hard and sad to seehim in this state) or in two-part sentence with infinitive subject ( Arguewith him difficult,almost impossible). State category words do not agree And not controlled can be combined with a ligament - abstract or semi-abstract (to be, to become, to become, to be done), express time And inclination (to me I became sad). Words of the state category are capable of being distributed by forms of names nouns And pronouns in the dative case without a preposition, in the genitive or prepositional case - with prepositions, i.e. manage these forms; combined with indicators of measure and degree(adverbs of measure and degree, particles, etc. (To me it was a lot of funat yesterday's party)). When using words, state categories are often used dependent infinitives (I it was painful to watchon him). Unlike adverbs and adjectives, state category words no words do not define (She was sad). This causes state category words to be highlighted in special lexico-grammatical group - part of speech.
Depending on values state category words are divided into quality And modal. Quality state category words mean:
- a) the mental or physical state of living beings, the state of nature, the environment, the situation; in particular:
- – a person’s mental state (annoying, pathetic, offensive etc.);
- - volitional state of a person (hunting, laziness, captivity etc.);
- – physical state of living beings (painful, stuffy, disgusting etc.);
- – state of nature, environment and situation (cold, rainy, sunny, spacious, free etc.);
- b) assessment of condition or position:
- – relative to extent in time and space (late, time, far, low etc.);
- – psychological and moral and ethical (convenient, bad, sin, good, shame etc.);
- – assessment of visual or auditory perception (seen, heard etc.).
Modal state category words indicate a state with modal coloring, i.e. contain the meaning of necessity, possibility, obligation ( Can, maybe you need etc.).
- Cm.: Shcherba L.V. About parts of speech in Russian. pp. 74–75.
- Cm.: Vinogradov V.V. Russian language. Grammatical doctrine of words. pp. 320 ff.
- Cm.: Lekant P. A. Grammatical categories of words and sentences. P. 25.
- On the category of state in Russian studies of the 19th – early 20th centuries. cm.: Vinogradov V.V. Russian language. Grammatical doctrine of words. M., 1972. pp. 319–320. Don. cm.: Meshchaninov I. I. Members of a sentence and parts of speech. L., 1978; Isachenko A.V. On the emergence and development of the “category of state” in Slavic languages// Questions of linguistics. 1955. No. 6. P. 48–65; Pospelov N. S. The relationship between grammatical categories and parts of speech: (Based on the material of the modern Russian language) // Questions of grammatical structure: collection. Art. M., 1955. S. 74–91; Galkina-Fedoruk E. M. Impersonal sentences in modern Russian. M., 1958; Babaytseva V.V. Phenomena of transitivity in the grammar of the Russian language. M., 2000. P. 322; Zolotova G. A. On the category of evaluation in the Russian language // Communicative aspects of Russian syntax. M., 1982. S. 274–281; Migirin V. I. State category or subjectless adjectives? // Research on the modern Russian language: collection. Art. M., 1970. S. 150–157; Lekant P. A. Part of speech predicate// Grammatical categories of words and sentences. M., 2007. pp. 47–50.
- See: Russian Grammar. Part I: Phonetics and morphology: textbook for grades 5–6 / ed. L. V. Shcherby; Modern Russian language. Morphology / ed. V.V. Vinogradova M., 1952. P. 394; Russian Grammar-80 (2005). P. 705.
- Cm.: Shcherba L.V. About parts of speech in Russian. pp. 74–75; Vinogradov V.V. Russian language. Grammatical doctrine of words. P. 320.
- Cm.: Galkina-Fedoruk E. M. Adverbs in modern Russian language. M., 1939; Modern Russian language. Morphology / ed. V. V. Vinogradova. P. 397; Galkina-Fedoruk E. M., Gorshkova K. V., Shansky N. M. Modern Russian language. Lexicology, phonetics, morphology: textbook, manual. 3rd ed. M., 2009. P. 379.
- Cm.: Panfilov V. M. Dictionary of predicates (words of the state category) in the Russian language. M., 1969. Wed. modern research on predicates(short adjective): Lekant P. A. Part of speech predicate // Grammatical categories of words and sentences. M., 2007. P. 47–50; Degtyareva M. V.
- Wed: Babaytseva V.V. Phenomena of transitivity in the grammar of the Russian language. M., 2000. P. 322 ( state names –"syncretic" part of speech); Hers. Russian language. Collection of assignments: grades 10–11: a manual for schools and advanced classes. studying the Russian language... 2nd ed. M., 2000 ( state names); Babaytseva V.V., Chesnokova L.D. Russian language. Theory. 5th–9th grade. M., 2002. P. 160 ( status words).
- Cm.: Zolotova G. A. O categories of evaluation in the Russian language // Communicative aspects of Russian syntax. M., 1982. pp. 274–281. Wed: Zolotova G. A., Onipenko N. K., Sidorova M. Yu. Communicative grammar of the Russian language. M., 1998.
- Wed: Modern Russian literary language / ed. V. G. Kostomarova, V. I. Maksimova. M., 2003. P.487 (“A special subgroup is formed by predicative adverbs (predicatives) denoting a state (emotional, physical or other). Unlike other subgroups of adverbs, they do not act as circumstances, but as the main member of a one-part sentence – a predicate ( Everyone was bored in the evenings: The room was cold). Denoting a state, predicative adverbs are also called a category of state"); Modern Russian language. Theory. Analysis of linguistic units / edited by E. I. Dibrova. M., 2001. Part 2. P. 174–175 (in the section "Category states" the terms are used simultaneously state category, predicative, state category words.“The category of state (predicative) is a significant part of speech, denoting a dynamic state and expressing this meaning in the categories of analytical time, mood and impersonality” (p. 174); “Words of the state category must be distinguished from homonymous forms of adverbs and short adjectives” (P. 175)). Wed. research where short adjective (predicate) is considered as a “hybrid” part of speech expressing "quality condition"; Lekant P. A. Part of speech predicate; Degtyareva M. V. Partial status of the predicate. M., 2007.
- Russian Grammar-80 (2005) predicative adverbs And predicates refers to qualitative adverbs. Quote paragraph 1653: “Qualitative adverbs include predicative adverbs and predicatives - words that act as the main member of a one-component sentence. Predicative adverbs mean a state - subjective or non-subjective, and this meaning brings them closer to short forms of adjectives and passive participles" (P. 705) .
- See: Russian language. 7th grade: textbook for general education. organizations / M. T. Baranov, T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, L. A. Trostentsova [and others]; scientific ed. N. M. Shansky. M., 2014. P. 127.
- See, for example: Russian language: a textbook for students. prof. schools, institutions / ed. N. A. Gerasimenko. M., 2003. pp. 217–225 (“Adverb”). There is no information about this part of speech in reference books for schoolchildren, for example: Lekant P. A., Samsonov I. B. Student's Guide to the Russian Language. Grades 5–11 / ed. P. A. Lekanta. M., 2005.
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